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Item Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Communities’ Livelihoods and Natural Resources Management in North Western Highlands of Tanzania.(University of Dar es salaam, 2019) Mabbuye, EImpacts of Climate Change and Variability on Communities’ Livelihoods and Natural Resources Management in North Western Highlands of Tanzania. Edmund Mabbuye PHD philosophy (Climate Change and Sustainable Development) University of Dar es salaam, Institute of Resource Assessment, 2019 This study analysed the impacts of climate change and variability on communities’ livelihood and natural resources management in north western highlands of Tanzania. Specifically, the study was undertaken in Buhingwe and Kasulu district in Kigoma Region. The aim was to understand communities vulnerability to be impacts of climate and non- climate processes particularly with regards to livelihoods and natural resources management. Study sites and respondents were selected through simple random and purposive sampling methods. Data were collected through household surveys, key information interviews, and focus group discussions. Remote sensed and meteorological data were used for analysis of land use and climatic changes accordingly. Quantitative data analysis tools included GIS, and meteorological statistics software such as clidata, INSTANT, XLSTAT and SPSS. Theme-content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. Findings indicate inter-annual and seasonal variability of rainfall and temperature levels from the normal across the study sites. Study revealed significant increasing trends for mean annual maximum and minimum temperature. Major changes in rainfall patterns were decreasing trend of seasonal and annual rainfall, amount, and reduced number of rainfall in a season, unreliable onset and cessation of rainfall, erratic seasonal rainfall and increase in rainfall intensity. Maximum decline of seasonal rainfall had slope value of -24, 51. While maximum decline of annual rainfall trends had slope value of -12.76. The minimum decline for seasonal rainfall had slope values of -2.17 and annual rainfall trends had slope values of -1.36. Villages in the highland zone were found to be highly vulnerable index value. Major to the impacts of climate and non-climate stress factors with 0.61 vulnerability index value. Major climate stress factors for communities’ vulnerability included seasonal shifts of rainfall and increase of temperature, which had effects on crop production and livestock keeping such as increase of pests and diseases, low agricultural yields and decrease in income. Non-climate stress factors such as landscape characteristics, poverty, mobility, inadequate extension services low income and poor agronomic facilities might have been accelerating the effects of the changing climate on communities’ livelihoods and natural resources management. Communities’ response strategies included migration to other areas for spatial utilization of resources (e.g. highland-lowland interaction) and adoption of new livelihood activities, adoption of altenative crop cultivars and breeds, and use of traditional and modern pesticides and insecticides for treating crop and livestock pests and diseases. Generally, changing climate is driven by both natural and human processes. Changes in climate condition have had effects on communities’ livelihoods, and natural resources management. Therefore, given current and uncertainties, and regarding future climate conditions, concerted efforts are required to support adaptation strategies to sustain communities’ livelihoods and natural resources management in the context of the changing climate. Adaptation measures can include early warning systems, post-harvest management, awareness raising, alternative crop cultivars and animal breeds, and environmental friendly activities such as beekeeping for food and income generation. Other adaption measures can include supporting collaborative approaches in natural resources management. Such as community bases forest management.Item Land Cover, Climate and River Flow Linkages and their implications on human wellbeing in lukuled river Catchment Area, Tanzania.(University of Dar es salaam, 2020) Mulamula, Lilian GasparThis study assessed the variability and interplay between land cover change, climate and river flow variabilities and their implications on human wellbeing . The specific objectives of the study where: to examine the spatial and temporal land cover change in the lukuledi River catchment area: analyse rainfall and temperature trends and seasonal rainfall behaviors; evaluate the linkages of land cover change, climate and river flow variabilities and assess implication of the land cover change, climate river flow variabilities on community well-being. The model of human interaction with the environment andfrivers, pressure, state, impact and response model (DPSIR) were used to guide the study. Mixed method research design involving descriptive and analytical approaches was used. The Random Forest Classifier model was used for land cover classification. The time series data of rainfall and temperature were analyses for trends and step change. Analysis of seasonal rainfall behaviour and selected rainfall indices of importance to community wellbeing were also done. Trend and climPACT2 software were used for analysis of climate data. Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was used to investigate the linkage between land cover change, climate variability and river flow. Field survey data was used to understand implication of land cover change and observed hydro-climatic variability on community wellbeing. Results have shown that, land cover was dominated by bushland, forest and cultivated land characterized with transformation from forest to bushland and agricultural land. Human activities are at the centre of land cover change in Lukuledi River catchment area. Direct drivers of land cover change are agriculture, logging, charcoal making and collection of firewood and construction poles. The underlying factors for land cover change are rise in population, economic opportunities and forest and water conservation policies. The annual rainfall amount in the Lukuledi catchment is dominated by a decreasing trend with step changes seen in five out six stations. Temperature is increasing and has positive step changes. Seasonal rainfall behaviour is dominated by early onsets and late cessations. There is observed increase in number of raindays in three stations which is caused by an increase in consecutive number of wet days within the rain season and not increase in seasonal rainfall duration. Extreme rainfall exceeding 50mm was found to be increasing in two stations and decreasing in two. Both climate variability and land cover change cause a decrease in in mean annual flow of the Lukuledi River. Climate variability cause more impacts on the river flow than the land cover change. There is more discharge during dry season in land rich in vegetable cover as compared to the land with less vegetation cover. Agriculture is the key aspect linked with human wellbeing that is highly impacted by hydro-climate variabilities. Other areas affected are water for domestic and livestock use, water for biodiversity and access to forest resources. The study concludes that human environment interactions consist of strong feedback loops. Human activities have caused a disturbance on the functioning of the river catchment ecosystem. The resulting disturbed ecosystem goes back to affect the human wellbeing. These impacts are interlinked and exacerbating individual impacts. The study recommended promotion of farming practices that offer better optimization of the available agricultural land thus less conservation of natural vegetation diversification of livelihoods to reduce the impacts of climate variabilities, and awareness of the interlinkages of the factors so as to raise a conservation driver. For sustainability of the existing plans of expanding irrigation potential of the catchment, special emphasize should put in conservation of the catchment vegetation. Forest conservation initiatives should also put community needs in their priority so as to ensure a win-win situation between conservation of the forests and community needs.Item Analysis of determinants of sustainability for community managed rural water supply projects in Tanzania(University of Dar es Salaam, 2019) Kirenga, Dialista Appia ThomasAnalysis of determinants of sustainability for community managed rural water supply projects in Tanzania A Case of Moshi District Council, Kilimanjaro Region Dialista Appia Thomas Kirenga PhD (NARAM) University of Dar es salaam, Institute of resource assessment, 2019 Despite implementing the 1980s Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP), Tanzania has experienced a number of unexpected results and challenges in the community managed (CM) rural water supply projects resulting into unsustainability services delivery. As a result in Tanzania, water supply functionality status countrywide, currently indicate that out of about 87,221 water points, 31,855 are non-functional, 6,386 are partially functional and only about 48,980 are functional. This situation is denying 7,963,750 rural communities access to water supply services. In relation to that the main objective of this study was to deepen the understanding of the nature of the most critical determinants factors affecting sustainability of CM rural water supply projects in Tanzania. The first specific objective of the research was to explore perception of users and key informants on the understanding of water supply sustainability. The second specific objective was to establish the determinants of sustainability of water supply project, while the third one was to identify specific characteristics, which affect success or failure of water supply management models. The last specific objective was to establish factors necessary for improvement of CM rural water supply projects. A non-probability purposeful sampling technique was used to select sample size. Respondents were randomly selected from two villages based on their performance on water supply service delivery. In each sub village five out of ten respondents were randomly selected. A total of 157 community water users were selected from nine administrative wards in the study area. Five groups of ten key informants participated in FGD while 15 key informants were involved in in-depth interviews. These together represented 141,386 populations in the study area. SPSS and Microsoft excel for data analysis. Based on study findings, sustainability indicators are perceived differently between community water users, water entity operators and support organizations. Also, factors affecting sustainability in MDC are associated with both formalized and non-formalized factors. It was also established that historical perspectives about water sources ownership and local politics contribute to poor resources contribution and un-willingness to pay for the water supply services. Again, project exit strategies were found to be among factors that contribute to improve water supply services delivery in the case study area. Factors for improving sustainable services entail among others institutional reforms for effective sustainable cost recovery. Among others the study recommends that Principles of Common Pool Resources (CPR) and Institutional Bricolage should be integrated in project design to resolve challenges affecting sustainability.Item Impact of urban and peri-urban agriculture on food security in Dar es salaam, Tanzania(University of Dar es Salaam, 2019) Malekela, Asnath AlbertoUrban and peri-urban agriculture have thrived in many parts of the world as a response and adaptation to food insecurity caused in part by rapid urbanization. This study examined the contribution of urban and peri-urban agriculture on food on food security. It also looked at the dynamics of food production and its distribution in the study area and assessed the impact of supermarket expansion on urban and peri-urban agriculture and food security as well as the constraints facing urban and peri-urban agriculture. Secondary data were collected through literature survey and primary data were collected using structured and in-depth interviews, observations and focus group discussions. A total of 201 respondents who engaged in urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) in Dar es salaam city were interviewed. Also, local market traders from 10 local markets,, and 7 supermarket managers/representatives from 7 supermarkets in Dar es salaam city were interviewed. The statistical package for Social Sciences (SPSS) VERSION 20 was used to analyse the data and Pearson Chil-square was used to test the statistical significance between variables. The findings show that urban and peri-urban agriculture contributed positively to food accessibility, food availability, food stability and utilization. The findings also revealed that food production and distribution in the study area was dynamic in various ways, firstly it was gender sensitive where by 54.2% females were also. It was characterized by shifting cultivation due to water scarcity (25%) lack of land (34%), urban sprawl (15%) and land ownership (12%). In its mode of operationalization some farmers worked in groups (28.4%) and some worked on individual basis (71.6%). The agricultural products were sold to the local markets and supermarkets. It was also found out that the rapid mushrooming of supermarkets in Dar es salaam city had a positive contribution on food security by procuring food products from various sources within and outside Tanzania and some from urban and peri-urban farming thus providing them markets however small. The study also revealed that, urban and peri-urban agriculture in the study are encountered a number of constraints including; increased temperatures (21.6%), lack of land (21.2%), pests and diseases (16.7%),decrease in rainfall (21.4%), lack of capital (10.3%), lack of market (5.8%) and shift in rain season(4.3%). It is evident that, urban and peri-urban agriculture contribute positively on food security, however the activity is dynamic and faces a number of challenges. The study recommends that the government of Tanzania should provide support to urban and peri-urban farmers by boosting up agricultural activities and creating an enabling environment for farmers. Vertical farming should be adopted for the better output with the use of limited land and water resources. Also, the government should strengthen the laws with regard to inclusion of locally produced food products Tanzania supermarketsItem Impacts of climate change and variability on communities’ livelihoods and natural resources management in north western highlands of Tanzania(University of Dar es Salaam, 2019) Mabhuye, EdmundThis study analysed the impacts of climate and variability on communities’ livelihoods and natural resources management in north western highlands of Tanzania. Specifically, the Study undertaken in Buhigwe and Kasulu Districts in Region, The WON to understand communities' vulnerability to the of non-climate processes particularly with regards to livelihoods Study sites and respondents were selected simple condom and purposive sampling methods. Data were collected through household surveys, key interviews, and focus group discussions. Remote sensed and meteorological data were used for analysis of land use and climatic changes accordingly, Quantitative data analysis tools included GIS, and meteorological stastics softwere such Clidata, INSTANT, XLSTAT and SPSS. Theme-content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. Findings indicate inter-annual and seasonal variability of rainfall and temperature levels from the normal across the study sites, Study revealed significant increasing trends for mean annual Maximum and Minimum temperature. Major changes in rainfall patterns were decreasing trend of' seasonal and annual rainfall amount, reduced number of rainfall in season, unreliable onset and cessation of rainfall, erratic seasonal rainfall and increase in rainfall intensity. Maximum decline of seasonal rainfall had slope values of —14.5 1 s while maximum decline of annual rainfall trends had slope values of 12.76. The minimum decline for seasonal rainfall had slope values of -2.17 and annual rainfall trends had slope values of - l .36, Villages in the highland zone were found to be highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate and non-climate stress factors with 0.61 vulnerability index value. Major climate stress factors for communities' vulnerability included seasonal shifts of rainfall and increase of temperature, which had effects on crop production and livestock keeping such as increase of pests and diseases. low agricultural yields and decrease in income. Non-climate stress factors such as landscape characteristics, poverty, mobility, inadequate extension services, low income and poor agronomic facilities might have been accelerating the effects of the changing climate on communities' livelihoods and natural resources management. Communities response strategies included migration to other areas for spatial utilization of resources (e.g. highland-lowland interaction) and adoption of new livelihoods activities, adoption of alternative crop cultivars and breeds, and use of traditional and modern pesticides and insecticides for treating crop and livestock pests and diseases. Generally, changing climate is driven by both natural and human processes. Changes in climate condition have had effects on communities' livelihoods, and natural resources management. Therefore, given current and uncertainties regarding future climate conditions, concerted efforts are required to support adaptation strategies to sustain communities' livelihoods and natural resources management in the context of the changing climate. Adaptation measures can include early warning systems, post-harvest management, awareness raising, alternative crop cultivars and animal breeds, and environmental friendly activities such as beekeeping for food and income generation. Other adaptation measures can include supporting collaborative approaches in natural resources management, such as community based forest management.Item A changing climate: Local adaptations in Northern Coastal communities' livelihoods of Unguja Island, Zanzibar(University of Dar es Salaam, 2019) Khatib, Mary MtumwaNorth Unguja is considered to be highly vulnerable to climate change and variability. It is a place where appropriate climate change and variability adaptation measures are urgent. The study examined local adaptation in northern coastal communities livelihoods of Unguja Island, Zanzibar. It was conducted in ten villages: five from Northwest zone (NWZ) and another five village from Northeast zone (NEZ). The villages in the NWZ include Mkokotoni, Pale, Donge Mchangani, Muwanda, and Mto wa Pwani; and those in the NEZ include Kiwengwa, Pwani Mchangani, Matemwe, Kigomani and Kijini-Mnemba Islet. A total of 373 respondents, which is equivalent to 7% of the entire population of North Unguja, was involved in this study. The study used mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) in gathering data. The core dataconstitute information from interviews, climate parameters (i.e. temperature and rainfall), aerial photographs and satellite images. Data collection techniques include interviews, focus group discussion and field observation. Content analysis, Microsoft Excel, SPSS and GIS were used to analyze the data, whereas, graphs, table, maps and captions were used to present the findings. The findings show that from 1916 to 2016 the study area has experienced positive (warm) and negative (cool) temperature anomalies and a 0.4 to 1⁰C temperature shift during the 20th century indicating significant change and variation in climate. The changes in climate have influenced adaptation processes of local communities based on their livelihood activities. The livelihood activities in the study site are highly dynamic and have undergone profound adaptation change/shift or continued over 100 years. There is a heavy dependency of local communities on natural resources. It is observed that population increase, limited livelihood opportunities, low level of formal education and inadequate environmental awareness increase the dependency on natural resources in the vicinity. Furthermore, the study reveals that changes in climate by increasing temperature and unpredictable rainfall have emerged as challenges to local communities based on their livelihood activity options. The findings further show how climate change adaptations of local communities turn to mal-adaptation such as diversification, expansion and intensification of livelihood activities like an encroachment on forests for cultivation, mining of gypsum and extraction of stones for making bricks. Moreover, there are differences between how local communities’ views on climate change and variability lead to increased risk on the one hand and vulnerability to climate change and variability to communities’ livelihoods due to how such changes are experienced on the other. The study also establishes that land cover and land use have changed over time mainly due to anthropogenic activities. Furthermore, the findings indicate that processes of environmental change and climate events that unfold locally are closely linked to the way different resources are valued. The study concludes that enhancing local capacity to adapt will help to secure sustainable livelihood activities and natural resources in NWZ and NEZ under the dynamic climate and environment. The study recommends that efforts to support local capacity to respond to climate change and variability in NWZ and NEZ must be based on local communities’ views in order to enable such communities to have a greater say in the decisions that affect their livelihoodItem Evaluation of remotely-sensed reflected and emitted energy for monitoring woodland carbon in Liwale and Kilwa in Tanzania(University of Dar es salaam, 2019) Makandi, Harun AtupeleA functional, cost-effective, and comprehensive system for repetitive measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) of forest carbon is important for sustainable forest management. Optical remote sensing datasets are critical for the development of such a system because they are free, and have a wall-to-wall and repetitive coverage. However, their accuracy in estimating woodland above-ground biomass and carbon (AGB and C) using mainstream methods is limited. One such method is using the magnitude of woodland greenness quantified using the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) drawn from the imagery. NDVI saturates with increasing AGB and C, thereby limiting the range of estimations and accuracy. Also, the greenness fluctuates seasonally in tropical woodlands and evaluates the variable canopy moisture than the otherwise stable AGB and C. Cloud contamination on the datasets is another limitation. There is a need to enhance the accuracy of the estimations to leverage the strengths of optical satellite data. The objective of this study was to develop a Forest Biomass Index (FoBI) tomodel the magnitude of the latent and sensible thermal fluxes prevalent in woodland conditions. The satellite-derived surface temperature (Ts) and NDVI were combined in the modeling using the index. The magnitude of the fluxes correlates better with woodland AGC and is less prone to seasonal fluctuations than does that of the commonly used woodland greenness. The resulting FoBI maps were regressed with plot-based AGC measurements to estimate the AGC in Liwale and Kilwa districts in 2014 and 2018 and its change between the two years. The regression of the FoBI maps of 2014 and 2018 with plot-based AGC returned R2 of 0.52 and 0.58 respectively. This comparedfavourably to R2 of 0.44 from pairing the annual NDVI map of 2014 with plot estimates. Also, the range of estimation of FoBI map was from 0 to 266 t ha-1 C, over twice that of NDVI. FoBI’s extended range indicates the elimination of the saturation problem at least for estimations of AGC in miombo woodlands. Cloud cover was also eliminated by compositing multiple Ts and NDVI layers using the maximum value compositing (MVC) method. Using the regressed FoBI maps of 2014 and 2018, the mean carbon stock density in the study area was estimated to be 44 t ha-1 at 95% confidence level in both years. The total AGC was about 220 Mt in 2014 and 213 in 2018. Change analysis shows a decline of 6.6 Mt (ca. 3%) of total AGC between the two years, indicating general stability of the AGC pools in Liwale and Kilwa. The developed FoBI enhances the accuracy of comprehensive and repetitive estimations of woodland AGC using free and widely available optical satellite datasets by eliminating the main cited problems with using them. Using FoBI, the monitoring, reporting, and verification of woodland carbon stocking meeting international standards of reporting can be done.Item Impacts of Climate change and variability on communities’ livelihoods and Natural resources management in north western highlands of Tanzania(University of Dar es Salaam, 2019) Mabhuye, EdmundThis study analysed the impacts of climate change and variability on communities’ livelihoods and natural resources management in north western highlands of Tanzania. Specifically, the study was undertaken in Buhigwe and Kasulu Districts in Kigoma Region. The aim was to understand communities’ vulnerability to the impacts of climate and non-climate processes particularly with regards to livelihoods and natural resources management. Study sites and respondents were selected through simple random and purposive sampling methods. Data were collected through household surveys, key informants interviews, and focus group discussions. Remote sensed and meteorological data were used for analysis of land use and climatic changes accordingly.Quantitative data analysis tools included GIS, and meteorological statistics software such as Clidata, INSTANT, XLSTAT and SPSS. Theme-content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. Findings indicate inter-annual and seasonal variability of rainfall and temperature levels from the normal across the study sites. Study revealed significant increasing trends for mean annual Maximum and Minimum temperature. Major changes in rainfall patterns were decreasing trend of seasonal and annual rainfall amount, reduced number of rainfall in a season, unreliable onset and cessation of rainfall, erratic seasonal rainfall and increase in rainfall intensity. Maximum decline of seasonal rainfall had slope values of −14.51, while maximum decline of annual rainfall trends had slope values of -12.76. The minimum decline for seasonal rainfall had slope values of-2.17 and annual rainfall trends had slope values of -1.36. Villages in the highland zone were found to be highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate and non-climate stress factors with 0.61 vulnerability index value. Major climate stress factors for communities’ vulnerability included seasonal shifts of rainfall and increase of temperature, which had effects on crop production and livestock keeping such as increase of pests and diseases, low agricultural yields and decrease in income. Non-climate stress factors such as landscape characteristics, poverty, mobility, inadequate extension services, low income and poor agronomic facilities might have been accelerating the effects of the changing climate on communities’ livelihoods and natural resources management. Community’s response strategies included migration to other areas for spatial utilization of resources (e.g. highland-lowland interaction) and adoption of new livelihoods activities, adoption of alternative crop cultivars and breeds, and use of traditional and modern pesticides and insecticides for treating crop and livestock pests and diseases. Generally, changing climate is driven by both natural and human processes. Changes in climate condition have had effects on communities’ livelihoods, and natural resources management. Therefore, given current and uncertainties regarding future climate conditions, concerted efforts are required to support adaptation strategies to sustain communities’ livelihoods and natural resources management in the context of the changing climate. Adaptation measures can include early warning systems, post-harvest management, awareness raising, alternative crop cultivars and animal breeds, and environmental friendly activities such as beekeeping for food and income generation. Other adaptation measures can include supporting collaborative approaches in natural resources management, such as community based forest management.Item Impacts of Livelihoods diversification onland use management practices in Tanzania: the case of Rungwe district(University of Dar es Salaam, 2019) Samwel, AtupakisyeIn recent years livelihoods diversification hasbecome one of the survival strategy for rural households in Africa.In Rungwe District, households have diversified their livelihoods activities to improve their income and food security.This study assessed impacts of livelihoods diversification on land use management practices (LMPs) in six villages, namely Kikota, Ilolo, Idweli, Ntokela, Masukulu and Ijigha of Rungwe District. The overall objective was to enhance an understanding of the impacts of livelihoods diversification on LMPs so as to contribute to existing knowledge on livelihoods diversification and LMPs and to enrich the theories that relate to the study.Methods of data collection comprised of documentary review, Remote Sensing and GIS, household interviews, focused group discussion (FGDs),key informant interviews (KIIs), transect walks and field observation. A total of 253 households were interviewed. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS version 20 and Excel spreadsheet. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the impact of livelihoods diversification on LMPs while through a Chi-square test the associations between influencing factors and livelihoods activities were tested. Content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. The findings were presented in various ways, including tables, graphs and maps.The study results showed that there are various livelihoods activities in the study villages such as crop cultivation, livestock keeping, trade and wage labour. Livelihoods diversification was influenced by factor like markets, climate, population, land shortages, institutions, policies, biophysical factors and livelihoods assets. LMPs like mixed cropping, continuous cultivation and flat cultivation dominated the area. The multiple regression analysis showed that livelihoods diversification had a significant impact on Lamps’livelihoods diversification has led to the commercialization of land, labour and food crops; changes in cropping patterns and crop composition; increased use of some LMPs; deforestationand change in land use/cover.The study concluded that despite diversity of livelihoods activities, agriculture has remained the main occupation of households in Rungwe District. Commercialisation of crops has made some food crops to be important sources of income in the area. Livelihoods diversification was found to be important not only for improving livelihoods but also for environmental conservation. Market had appeared to be a strong factor inItem Impacts of livelihoods diversification on land use management practices in Tanzania(University of Dar es Salaam, 2019) Samwel, AtupakisyeIn recent years livelihoods diversification has become one of the survival strategy for rural households in Africa. In Rungwe District, households have diversified their livelihoods activities to improve their income and food security. This study assessed impacts of livelihoods diversification on land use management practices (LMPs) in six villages, namely Kikota, Ilolo, Idweli, Ntokela, Masukulu and Ijigha of Rungwe District. The overall objective was to enhance an understanding of the impacts of livelihoods diversification on LMPs so as to contribute to existing knowledge on livelihoods diversification and LMPs and to enrich the theories that relate to the study. Methods of data collection comprised of documentary review, Remote Sensing and GIS, household interviews, focused group discussion (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs), transect walks and field observation. A total of 253 households were interviewed. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS version 20 and Excel spreadsheet. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the impact of livelihoods diversification on LMPs while through a Chi-square test the associations between influencing factors and livelihoods activities were tested. Content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. The findings were presented in various ways, including tables, graphs and maps. The study results showed that there are various livelihoods activities in the study villages such as crop cultivation, livestock keeping, trade and wage labour. Livelihoods diversification was influenced by factor like markets, climate, population, land shortages, institutions, policies, biophysical factors and livelihoods assets. LMPs like mixed cropping, continuous cultivation and flat cultivation dominated the area. The multiple regression analysis showed that livelihoods diversification had a significant impact on LMPs. Livelihoods diversification has led to the commercialisation of land, labour and food crops; changes in cropping patterns and crop composition; increased use of some LMPs;deforestation and change in land use/cover.The study concluded that despite diversity of livelihoods activities, agriculture has remained the main occupation of households in Rungwe District. Commercialisation of crops has made some food crops to be important sources of income in the area. Livelihoods diversification was found to be important not only for improving livelihoods but also for environmental conservation. Market had appeared to be a strong factor in influencing livelihoods diversification in the area.It is recommended that livelihoods activities which are environmental friendly should be encouraged. The government should provide subsidies and improve farmers’ access to farm inputs and encourage private sectors to provide financial support and make necessary inputs available close to households. Also, market conditions and transport services should be improved to enhace livelihoods diversification in rural area.Item Radio communication and the engendering of community responsiveness to forest conservation in Rufiji, Tanzania(University of Dar es Salaam, 2019) Zacharia, MalimaThis study investigated the effectiveness of radio in communicating information to engender community responsiveness to forest conservation among communities in Tanzania. The presentation of the data and discussion of the findings were guided by the four objectives of the study. The study examined what functions radio plays in influencing communities’ responsiveness to forest conservation in Tanzania; assessed the framing and packaging of information on forest issues communicated through radio to inform the communities on conserving forests; explored the extent to which forest information communicated through the radio is accessible, understandable and utilisable among Rufiji community members; and finally, established and described noticeable changes, challenges, and opportunities associated with the role of radio in communicating forest information and engaging communities to conserve forests. Mixed methods or multimethods were deployed to collect data, analyse it, and interpret the research findings. For the first and second objectives, the study used content analysis of the Urithi Wetu (Our Heritage) programme produced and aired by TBC Taifa whereas for the third and fourth objectives, the study used a combination of questionnaires, interviews and focus group discussions to collect requisite data. The study applied the Agenda-setting theory to study how the media shaped public knowledge and influenced communities to conserve forests in Rufiji. This theory facilitated the assessment of the correlation between the emphasis that the radio placed on forest issues and the importance attributed to forest conservation by rural inhabitants of Rufiji. The study established that, contrary to the growing scientific evidence that mass media was the most effective vehicle in providing forest conservation education and creating awareness among the community members, radio was moderately effective in communicating forest information and enhancing community responsiveness to forest conservation in Rufiji, Tanzania. 24 percent and 25 percent of the respondents reported that radio had succeeded to set an agenda for forest conservation in Rufiji to a small degree and to a moderate degree, respectively. Furthermore, many of the respondents (37.1 %) reported that radio had increased environmental education and awareness only to a moderate degree whereas about 35.9 percent were confident that radio had influenced communities to take initiatives of conserving forests only to a moderate degree. The study found that the radio’s limitation to frame forest issues upon solutions, its failure to package properly forest information to resonate with and appeal to the rural inhabitants, poor packaging of forest information which failed to communicate different points-of-view from both government officials and rural inhabitants and lack of research during the production of the programme were obstacles that undermined the radio’s effectiveness in influencing community members to stop cutting down trees and conserve forests. It was established that lack of research prevented the producer’s capacity to air programmes which could, otherwise, have empowered community members to find alternative sources of income generation and refrain from wanton forest destruction.Item Assessment of the potentials of mixed crop farming in adapting to the impacts of climate change and variability in Manyoni dictrict, Tanzania(University of Dar es Salaam, 2019) Sawe, Jackson RaymondThe main objective of the study was to assess the potentials of mixed crop farming in adapting to climate change in Manyoni district, Tanzania. The study adopted mixed research design where quantitative and qualitative research approaches were used to collect data. Data collection methods were household survey, Participatory Rural Appraisal methods such as face to face in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, direct field observation, trend analysis and documentary review. Household survey was done to 362 heads of households from four study villages namely Lusilile, Udimaa, Makanda and Magasai. Face to face in-depth interviews involved 17 key informants, focus group discussions comprised a total of 32 participants and trend analysis consisted of 32 participants. Rainfall and temperature data for Manyoni stations were collected from Tanzania Meteorological Agency while crop production data were collected from National Bureau of Statistics. Linear trends analysis was used to determine the trends of rainfall, temperature and crop production while Multinomial regression analysis was used to analyze determinants of mixed crop farming. ANOVA was used to analyse the variation among the group means of the study variables. The findings revealed that majority of the farming households were aware of climate change whereby about 80.9% of heads of households perceived that rainfall has decreased significantly while 88.7% perceived that temperature has increased, indicating their areas are increasingly becoming drier and warmer. The findings indicated that smallholder farmers have been impacted differently by climate change. The major impacts perceived by majority of the farmers were drying of crops, increased incidences of pests and diseases and persistence of low yields. In responding to these impacts, farmers generally used both household and farm level adaptation strategies. Furthermore, the study revealed that, farming households who adopted mixed crop farming were less vulnerable to climate impacts due to various potentials of mixed crop farming. These potentials included, crop insurance in unpredictable and unfavourable weather conditions, improvement of soil fertility, ensuring a variety of crop production and minimizing crop pests and diseases. Moreover, the study found that there were different determinants of farmers’ adoption of mixed crop farming, these including households and farm characteristics, village location and institutional factors. However, not all farmers’ were able to adopt mixed crop farming. Therefore, it is recommended that collective strategies to promote mixed crop farming should be implemented in order to respond to impacts of climate change. This is because mixed crop farming has been reported as the best farming option in responding to impacts of climate change.Item Impact of trees and soil interactions on ecosystem services in the highlands under changing climate in Tanzania: a case of ecological gradient of Mount Kilimanjaro(University of Dar es Salaam, 2017) Mathew, Mathayo MpandaSoil and tree resources provide important ecosystem services (ES) that sustain human livelihoods and help in mitigation and adaptation to climate change (CC). This study assessed the interaction of soil properties and tree stocks on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, an area reportedly under CC regime. The study site contains three altitudinal zones including Upland, Midland and Lowland, that span at elevation of 1696 to 680 m a.s.l. Results indicated that soil acidity, Al, total C and N increased with elevation, while exchangeable bases (Ca, K, Mg and Na), and available P and S decreased with elevation. Distinct tree species communities were noted associated with the three main land use zones (p<0.05). Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) stocks indicated poor correlation with Above Ground Tree Carbon (Pearson’s: r = 0.327, df = 47, p = 0.023) and poor interaction (Wald = 0.0008, df = 1, p = 0.977). Soil properties influenced tree species distribution; where SOC and moisture content indicated a high correlation with tree species (r > 0.8, p < 0.01), while Mg, soil pH, P, Ca, K, Na and bulk density indicated a poor correlation (r < 0.2, p < 0.001). The variation and interactions of the tree stocks and soil properties were influenced by temperature and precipitation differences along the land use zones. Potentials to withstand impacts of CC and retrieval of ES decreased with decreasing altitude (Upland>Midland>Lowland). It is therefore, recommended that intervention strategies should consider ecosystem-based management to address the challenges in the entire study site as a whole. Improving tree cover and addressing salinity in the Lowland remain a priority. Maintaining tree cover and addressing some soil nutrient deficiencies in the Upland and Midland may ensure sustainable benefits of ES under CC regime.Item Status of forest governance in redd+ readiness Tanzania: the case of Kolo Hills’ forests in Kondoa district(University of Dar es Salaam, 2017) Makatta, Angelingis AkwiliniAs Tanzania is among forefront countries committed to REDD+, it is important to examine its decentralized forest governance status since the national strategy is to implement the programme within the existing Participatory Forest Management (PFM) framework. This thesis is a case study focused on addressing governance gaps at village government institutions implementing PFM, with application of FAO/PROFOR forest governance analysis and monitoring framework model. The assessment was conducted in five villages implementing PFM and REDD+ pilot project at Kolo Hills’ forests through survey-questionnaires 250 administered to household heads, Focused group discussions, key-person unstructured interviews and documents’ review. It was found that governance status at villages as the key institutions implementing PFM does not foretell REDD+ readiness. The adherence level to good governance principles as perceived by villagers ranged from very low to medium across all governance principles. When villagers gauge the perceived state of governance on a Likert scale, governance status had a mean score of 1.79 out of 4 for the whole study community; indicating weak governance. However, there was a significant difference in governance status between villages at (P < 0.05). The leading village government found to have good adherence to most of governance principles scored 3.20 points on the Likert scale that imply good governance, while the least was the one which found to be very poor in most of the governance principles with a mean score below 1.0 points, which indicate very weak governance. The main hindering factors for good governance were found to be: i) a lack of willingness to act due to the weak incentives to government and community PFM stakeholders; ii) poor resource capability of village institutions; and iii) power relations among government and community PFM stakeholders. Gaps in legal framework that supports PFM was found to be the underlying cause for the poor governance by giving room for the hindering factors.Item Contribution of wetland friendly investment approach on livelihoods and ecosystem services: the case of Ndembera river valley in Iringa, Tanzania(University of Dar es Salaam, 2018) Ngowi, Norbert JohnProvision of incentives can help to sustain ecosystem as productive base and therefore increase Ecosystem Services (ES) and livelihoods. The Ndembera River Valley (NRV) is important for ES but it is facing increasing loss of these services due to degradation impacts. This study sought to develop a conceptual approach to understand the contribution of Wetland Friendly Investment (WFI) Approach on livelihoods and ecosystem services in Iringa, Tanzania. A questionnaire was administered to 208 households to collect data on livelihood assets (LA), drivers of land use and land cover change (LULC), water flow, and factors constraining the Approach. Fifteen key informant interviews and Focus Groups including 30 participants were used to supplement survey data. Quantitative analysis focused on the changes in the LA, LULC and water flow using Chi-square test, ERDAS and TREND software respectively. The Template style was used to analyze qualitative data. Findings from the study indicate that implementation of the WFI intervention brought both positive and negative changes: (i) statistically significant differentials between participating and non-participating households on multiple fronts including: Income, diversification of local economy, ownership of productive assets and network of cooperation; (ii) wetland cover had declined in swamps and floodplains by -4,060 and -667 hectares; (iii) the differentials in water flow before and after the intervention was not significant (p > 0.9); and (iv) dissolution of farmers’ groups constrained performance of the WFI. This study concludes that, the Approach contributed more to livelihoods, but failed to improve cover and water flow. Therefore the null hypothesis has been rejected instead the alternative one stating that the implementation of the WFI Approach has had contribution to community livelihoods and ecosystem services was accepted. Inclusion of Obstacles and Opportunities for planning can make the Approach more useful for policy and practice.Item Pathways to enhance climate change resilience among pastoral households in Simanjiro district northern Tanzania(University of Dar es Salaam, 2017) Ndesanjo, RonaldThe main objective of this study was to understand the pathways of enhancing resilience to climate variability and change among pastoral households in Simanjiro District-Northern Tanzania. Primary data were collected using household and institutional surveys while secondary data were obtained from the Tanzania Meteorological Agency. Climatic data were analysed using Standardised Precipitation Index while household and institutional data were analysed using Regression and Ego-network analyses respectively. It was found that temperature and precipitation trends have changed over the past four decades. Extreme climatic events, particularly drought, have become less predictable; drought-driven food and water insecurity are major determinants of household and livestock vulnerability while climate-driven diseases such as malaria and tick-borne still pose potential health risks. The study further established that livelihoods diversification and migration are major determinants of climate change adaptation and resilience building. Also, the study found that traditional leadership, village government(s) and local NGOs as well as their existing ties are instrumental in enhancing local communities’ climate change resilience. It is concluded that livelihoods diversification and migration are key pathways to enhancing households’ climate change resilience. It is recommended that gradual livelihoods diversification initiatives should be potential policy intervention(s) in enhancing climate change resilience among pastoral households. Further studies should examine determinants of anticipatory coping and adaptive strategies against climatic as well as other socio-economic perturbations. This goes along with getting deeper understanding on role on cross-level institutions in promoting climate change resilience.Item Socio-economic impacts of compulsory land acquisition on project affected persons in Tanzania: the case of selected urban areas in Dar es Salaam(University of Dar es Salaam, 2017) Makupa, Elitruder RichardThis study analyzed the socio-economic impacts of compulsory land acquisition on project affected persons in urban areas of Tanzania some years after relocating to new settlements. Face-to-face interviews, focus group discussions and field observations were used to obtain data from PAPs and officials involved in the projects. Snowball sampling technique was used to get the project affected persons. The results revealed a set of negative socio-economic impacts on PAPs’ lives because rebuilding their livelihoods after relocation was difficult. The observed impacts included loss/dislocation of occupation; loss of shelter; living in un-finished houses; decline of PAPs’ income levels; breakup of social networks; loss of access to adequate services; and disruption of education programs for schooling children. All these were a result of lack of transparency and participation of PAPs in the process, non-adherence to procedures by government officials. Other reasons were weaknesses of the compensation package, un-prepared new settlements and lack of a resettlement policy in the country. However, a positive impact on security of tenure was also observed to PAPs who managed to obtain surveyed plots from the government. KipawaMpya is an example, where PAPs shifted from informal to formalized land use rights. The study recommends for proper planning of CLA programs; the need for resettlement policy in the country; revisiting legal frameworks on CLA and compensation and community participation for pertinent undertaking of CLA projects in urban areas of Tanzania.Item The impacts of payment for environmental services (pes) on communities’ livelihoods: the case of Uluguru Mountains, Morogoro region(University of Dar es Salaam, 2016) Mndeme, Diana RugaitikaThis study assessed the impacts of Payment for Environmental Services (PES) on the communities’ livelihoods. Techniques of data collection included documentary review, survey, focus group discussions and physical observation. DFID Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) was used to assess livelihoods while econometric STATA programme and MS – excel were used in the data analysis. Probit Model and Lorenz Curves were used to estimate the probabilities of change in livelihood and measure the income distribution among the communities respectively. Stimulation of agricultural activities (both farming and livestock keeping), protection of watershed and arable land through the implementation of sustainable land use practices and tree planting were among the impacts of PES on the environmental sellers’ livelihoods. However, shortage of food and loss of income during the preliminary stages of the scheme intervention, loss of certain crops and tenants’ insecurity of tenure were the negative impacts. Inconsistence in payments by environmental services’ buyers, lack of good markets for farm products and less/inaccessibility of the area were reported to be the main challenges during the intervention. The study recommended that infrastructure should be provided, reliable environmental service buyers and good markets for farm products should be identified before the taking off of the PES scheme. It concludes that if the identified weaknesses and challenges are worked on, PES can positively impact environmental services sellers’ livelihoods for sustainable natural resources conservations. It is a promising natural resources conservation mechanism in Tanzania.Item The effectiveness of environmental impact (ei) mitigation measures in protecting ground water resources in the mining areas of Tanzania: the case of Buzwagi Gold Mine(University of Dar es Salaam, 2016) Gomezulu, Edwin SifuelThis study aimed at assessing the effectiveness of Environmental Impact (EI) mitigation measures in protecting ground water resource. The study assessed the quality of ground water and availability of water for local users in villages surrounding Buzwagi gold mine project which were Mwendakulima, Mwime and Nyihogo. Water and sediment samples were collected from wells in the villages whereby 28 water samples and 22 sediment samples were collected for every three months for a period of 297 days. The samples were analyzed for electrical conductivity, pH, cyanide and some selected heavy metals. Meteorological data were collected from Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA). The geological and topographical maps of the area were taken from Geological Survey of Tanzania (GST). The Social data were obtained through interviews. The results showed high levels of Mn, Cr, Zn, Pb and Fe in sediments while Pb and Fe levels in water exceeded the Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS) limit for drinking water in some wells. In addition CN was observed in wells which are closer to the mine than those far from the mine. The net amount of water in the aquifer was predicted to be 888 m3 in the next 5 years which may not be sufficient for community demand while high CN level was predicted in the wells closest to the TSF. It was concluded that not all the mitigation measures suggested in the EIA were implemented or the impact prediction and evaluation was not correct. It was recommended that the pumping rate of water should be low during dry season, the water flow metre should be installed and that the TSF’s liner should be regularly checked to ensure zero discharge as stated in the Environmental Management Plan (EMP).Further study was also recommended with more number of samples and prolonged sampling period.Item Agricultural production dynamics in the context of climate variability in Rungwe district, Tanzania(University of Dar es Salaam, 2017) Gwambene, BrownClimate variability is an immediate challenge affecting and threatening agricultural production and food security of smallholder farmers. It has increased the vulnerability of agricultural outputs and livelihoods of people who predominantly depend on climate sensitive resources. Against this background this study was aimed at understanding the dynamics, challenges and opportunities of agricultural crop production from the perspective of climate variability so as to boost resilience and enhance the food production. In this regard, the following objectives were addressed: I) To characterise the farming systems in Rungwe District; 2) To examine factors affecting main food crop production in Rungwe District; and 3) To assess the challenges and opportunities offered by climate variability in agricultural main food crop production in Rungwe District. The study employed a survey method to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. The former were subjected to content and trend analysis, whereas the latter were analysed using Microsoft excel and SPSS software. The results indicate variations in the agricultural crop production as a result of differences in the types of farming systems, socio-economic situation and implication of climate variability across agro-ecological zones. Land fragmentation, lack of information to inform the best adaptation measures and realisation of opportunities characterise the farming systems. In addition, lack of proper measuring units and poor record-keeping compounded the challenges to quantification of productivity and production trends that affect future strategies. Although, to a larger extent impacts from climate variability were negative, there were a few localised potential benefits to improve the livelihoods of farmers; however, the study revealed a problem in conveying opportunities arising from climate variability. Thus, the study concludes that understanding the challenges and opportunities of climate variability and other stressors is essential in developing adaptation options and minimising adverse effects on agricultural production. Finally, the study recommends the strengthening of the capacity of farmers and institutions in identifying and assessing the challenges within different farming systems by educating farmers and other relevant stakeholders on improving livelihoods, productivity and agricultural production. Such knowledge and initiatives require an appropriate information and support to meet the challenges, uncertainties and exploit opportunities in agricultural production, with particular attention being paid to packaging the information to inform the decision making process for all stakeholders.