PhD Theses

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State succession with regard to international treaties- some theoretical observation on the practice of Anglophone Africa
(University of Dar es Salaam, 1979) Othman, Haroub M.
This work looks at the practice of Commonwealth African States with regard to international treaties inherited from the colonial past. Though much has been written on the problem of state succession, yet no work has so far specifically and systematically looked at the practices of these states. This work therefore attempts a systematic and in-depth study of the problem of state succession as it affects the new states in Africa emerging from the colonial system. The work is divided into seven chapters; an exhaustive bibliography, and appendices. The first chapter is a short introduction reviewing the problem of state succession, and assessing the level of the debate so far. It also sets the context in which the work will proceed. The following five major chapters present a thorough treatment of the problem. Chapter Two traces the origins of international law, and the relationships that existed between Afro-Asian entities themselves, and the rest of the world. Also in this chapter the impact of the 1917 Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia on international law is examined, and also the qualitative input that Revolution has made in the whole system of international relations in the last sixty years. Also stressed here is the practice of the Soviet State with regard to the problem under study. This chapter ends by putting emphasis on the role being played in the post-war period by the new states in formulating and re-shaping international legal principles, including principles relating to state succession. With this somewhat broad perspective, the work moves on, in the third chapter, to look at the various theories of state succession current at one time or another. Since nation-states as we know them today first appeared in Europe, from where also emanated international law as is understood now, the discussion centres on different theories, a major portion of the discussion looks at contemporary theories and state practices. An attempt is also made in this chapter to look at the Marxist theory of the state and how it relates to (a) state succession and (b) to the question of international treaties. It must be pointed out, though, that this is the first treatment in the study of state succession which applies the Marxist theory of the state to this problem. Other Marxist international lawyers who have written on this problem have only looked at the practices of states without going into the theoretical postulates behind those states’ practices. An attempt was made in the early days of the Russian Revolution to go into these theoretical postulates, but that was a short-lived debate in the formulation of Soviet doctrine of international law. Chapter Four moves from the general to the particular, in that it looks at process of decolonization, and the various ways in which new states reacted to the international agreements of the colonial powers. It discusses in detail the inheritance agreements whereby the new states were required, as a condition to independence, to take over international arrangements applied to their territories prior to the achievement of Uhuru. This chapter also looks at the specific cases of Pakistan and India and the Francophonic African state. This consideration of case-studies is continued in Chapter Five, where the attainment of dominion status by the white dominions, the collapse of the Third Reich, the establishment and dissolution of the United Arab Republic, and the attainment of independence by Ireland, Israel and Somalia are also examined. It has been necessary to make a broad study of these cases in order to put into their proper context the practices of the Anglophonic African states. Chapter Six concentrates on the practices of the African Commonwealth states. It begins by discussing in detail the practice of Tanzania, since it was the first African Commonwealth state to have opted out of the then general practice of automatically taking over colonial international treaties, and to have adopted its own criteria in picking and choosing, known in the literature as the Nyerere Doctrine. The theme of this chapter is further elaborated in a consideration of the practices of the other African Commonwealth states with regard to international treaties and membership in international organisations. The work ends with an examination of the UN document on state succession, and indicates some of its weaknesses. The main thesis of the work is that decolonization should be seen in the same light as a social revolution, in that the attainment of independence as far as these African countries are concerned is not a process but an event. Hence what one sees is the birth of a completely new state, and therefore it should not be bound by the rights and duties of the colonial administration. Though of late the clean-slate principle has been accepted, it applies only to a state that is being born and not to those already existing which at the time of their independence was enmeshed in unequal treaty arrangements as a condition to Uhuru. The work ends by providing an exhaustive bibliography and appending much hither-to-unpublished materials.
Systems approach to the analysis and management of peasant agricultural development: a case of Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 1988) Baguma, Rweikiza
The main thrust of the study is to analyse peasants reactions to centrally initiated agricultural development endeavours; and to seek for factors that influence the patterns of their response, as well as an objective understanding of those factors. We conceive peasant agricultural development as a system; and we adopt the systems approach as our methodology of analysis. In Chapter one we discuss the theoretical aspects of the systems approach as a tool of analysis and its application to peasant agriculture; we show that the peasants agricultural development system is constituted of three important sub-systems, namely, the political leadership or policy makers, the experts, and the peasants. We further show how these interact and influence each other. Their interaction in the main, particularly between and among the political leadership, experts a peasants is built on inter and intra communication. Thus in analysing the influence each has on others, we talk of communication between actors in the system on the basis of an input conversion output scheme. Important aspects of the communication syndrome are what is communicated, how it is communicated and the response of impact of the communication. From the political leadership we get the policies which stipulate the changes needed in the system; then the policies are communicated to the experts to be translated into implementable plans and programmes. We argue that for their effective and appropriate translation the policies’ objectives and standards must be communicating plans and programmes to peasants, there are two important aspects, namely, the management or penetrative styles, and the resources available to make the communication effective. We further note that the above factors alone are not enough to guarantee positive response from the peasants. Hence the need to understand other factors that influence peasants perception of and hence compliance with any change, among these we note of the income prospect of change and how the changes sought interfere with their established style of life and expections. In Chapters Two through Five, we use the above framework namely, policies, plans, implementation and peasants response to analyse peasants agricultural development during the period between 1944/45 and 1979/80. Chapter Two deals with the colonial period from 1944/45 to 1961. On the basis of our analysis we show that during this era the colonial agricultural development policy constituted of creation of a kulak class of peasants, and increases in export cash crops. Planning during this period was rather ad-hoc, mainly planning of capital expenditure. The penetrative styles changed over the years first with an emphasis on transformation pursued energetically based on strict observance of regulations, later when it failed to deliver the anticipated goods, they concentrated on a focal point approach, with the attention centred on a select group of progressive farmers. Overall there was a marked increase in export crop production; however we conclude that this owed more to the favourable world prices obtaining then, rather than to the dominant policies pursued or the management styles adopted. In Chapter Three we analyse peasants’ agricultural development between 1961 and 1967. During this period there was continuity of the colonial era both in policy and approaches. However the main approach of transformation through the village settlement drive failed almost totally. It was the community development approach which was responsible for whatever progress that was achieved. Our conclusion is that in adopting the village settlement approach, the Government had not fully grasped the factors that would influence peasants compliance, particularly the prospective income to be derived. Chapter Four discusses the period between 1967 and 1972. During this period the major policy was ujamaa vijijini, whereby emphasis was on people living together and working collectively. A frontal approach was declared in 1969, although the decision to form ujamaa villages remained voluntary. By 1972 the ujamaa drive had not made much headway particularly in as far as collective agricultural production was concerned. We argue that the failure was mainly due to the failure on the part of the political leadership to stipulate clearly the policy standards; as well as to the voluntaries approach to implementation. The political leadership, the President in particular, failed to foresee the extent to which peasants were resistant to the policy, as well as whether the experts and politicians would support its implementation whole heatedly. Chapter Five focuses on development during the 1970’s. On the whole the development philosophy remained the same as pursued in the proceeding phase, that is agricultural transformation through ujamaa vijijini, however there were substantial alteration in he strategy and approach. Three important policies were enunciated during this period, first the sanctification of the Party as the supreme organ in matters of policy formulation; which was mainly concerned with clarification of the distribution of powers and authority among the organs of the State; second was decentralization of the Government planning and administrative machinery, stipulating relationships among the Party, the Government experts and the peasants; and finally was villagization which was concerned with creation of nucleated villages to constitute the necleus f social-economic transformation of the rural communities. During this period we observe that agricultural planning was undertaken at two important levels; there was on the one hand centralised planning assumed to emanate from the village level. In terms of penetrative styles, voluntarism in the formation of ujamaa villages was overtaken by the compulsory villagization policy, while after the institution of the villages the ujamaa aspect lost its eminence. Again during this phase the Government through the Decentralisation mechanism instituted what may be termed self-management at the village level, with increased government support with expertise and resources. Despite all these developments however, agricultural production continued to decline. Villagization was implemented almost according to schedule; but we observe that because of failure to provide clear and appropriate standards in policy, there were formations of numerous villages that are not economically viable. On the whole the problems in raising peasant agricultural production, continued to belie either in improper stipulation of policy objectives and standards; failure to appreciate the magnetite of change demanded by the policy in order to adopt commensurate management styles; poor communication; and failure to perceive correctly the peasants probable reactions, particularly with regard to the income prospects arising from their compliance. In Chapter six we analyse a number of cases, in pursuance of testing our hypotheses further. The general picture emerging from the cases is that peasant agricultural development is constrained on the whole, by failure to stipulate the policies clearly, particularly the standards, poor communication. Sometimes leading to poor translation of policies; and insensitivity and/or ingnorance on the part of the leadership and experts, of the peasants perceptions of their development needs and hence, their probable patterns of response. In the last chapter we firstly make general conclusions arising from the proceeding analysis, and secondly we revisit the earlier identified schools of thought seen in the background of our analysis and in comparison with the use of our model. Our final and general submission is that the systems model is ideal in analysing the peasants’ patterns of behaviour towards centrally initiated policies in the agricultural development field.
Poverty, urbanization and development: the case of Manzese squatter settlement, Dar es Salaam, and its impact on women.
(University of Dar es Salaam, 1998) Bagile, Astronaut Rutenge
The primary purpose of this dissertation was to investigate the environmental and general socio-economic living conditions of people in the unplanned urban settlement of Manzese in the City of Dar es Salaam. The research formulated hypotheses to the effect that: Both poverty and shortage of housing units in Dar es Salaam are at critical levels that women and children have been adversely affected due to poor environmental sanitation and living conditions. Moreover, the hypotheses proposed that the conditionality of Housing Credit or Building loan schemes by Tanzania financial institutions are in most cases too strangest and tend to discourage people from seeking such housing credit funds. The sample consisted of eighty women respondents. Data for this study was collected using documentary research, interviews, questionnaires and researcher's observation. The main method used for data collection was the questionnaire. Based on the findings from both documentary research and data analysis, the researcher concluded that: (i) people living in Manzese squatter settlement are poor both in terms of income and lack of access to basic needs such as proper surveyed plots, housing, inadequate services such as water, electricity, recreational facilities and dumping places within or close to their vicinity; (ii) The environmental and sanitation conditions of Manzese are very poor. People have no proper cooking places, they are overcrowded hence forced to share some services such as toilets whereby the modality of toilet waste disposal is alarming; (iii) In Market areas where they obtain their daily food, the sanitary condition is very poor; and (iv) The performance of delivery of public service to the Manzese squatter settlements is very low as such people and children in general have limited areas designated for recreational activities or early childhood education. The researcher therefore recommended that the Government should review its housing plot allocation policy for Urban Residential Areas to enable poor income people to have access to plots. Alternatively, it should launch a comprehensive Urban Housing Cooperative Programme which would promote construction of houses for low cost residential houses for low income group. It is also recommended that the city should improve its urban waste management operations, the city authority should make it mandatory for house owners to construct both cooking sheds and toilets for a fixed number of residents. Lastly, the Government should help children living in squatter settlements, like Manzese, by building day care centres and kindergarten services as an investment in human resource development.
The gender dimension of land rights in Tanzania: case study of Msindo village, Same District.
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2000) Koda, Bertha Omari
This study aimed at investigating women's land rights in contemporary land tenure systems pertaining to Same District, north-eastern Tanzania. The main assumptions were that the Wapare customary land tenure system accords unequal rights to women and men due to the household-based gender roles stereotyping as influenced by the marriage institution and that current land tenure reforms are increasing women's land tenure insecurity. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from primary and secondary sources, using PRA methods and structured interviews. A case study of Msindo Village located in Same district, Kilimanjaro region, north-eastern Tanzania was purposively selected and used as source of primary data A total of 69 households (15% of total households) and 139 respondents (5% of total village population) were randomly selected for in-depth interviewing. Life stories of one married woman and two widows were also collected as source of qualitative data. Quantitative data was analyzed into frequencies and cross tabulation (simple statistics) using the SPSS package while qualitative data was manually processed and interpreted in comparison with the study expectations. Results from this study point to the fact that although women in patrilineal Msindo Village enjoy more land tenure security than others through inheriting both clan and family land contrary to the customary land tenure injunctions on women's land rights, their land holding status is precariously threatened by contemporary agrarian reforms as influenced by the current Structural Adjustment Programmes. The study further testifies to the close relationship between marriage and women's land rights and confirms the assertion that the stereo-typing of gender roles is a major factor influencing women's land rights at household level. It further reveals that the flexible and openended arrangements of negotiation provided by the Wapare customary land tenure system and which are beneficial to women are increasingly being threatened by land privatization and commoditization. The study further verifies the assertion that the increase in the number of female and single parent headed households poses a challenge to both patriarchy and contemporary land tenure rules thus encouraging the evolution in land transfers away from the stereo-typical patriarchy-defined transfer procedures. The analytical framework of gender roles' stereo-typing used in this study has broadened the perspective of women's land rights in a pillage setting. More knowledge has also been generated on the conflict between customary patriarchy and capitalist patriarchy as well on the emerging effects of this conflict on women's and men's land rights. The major conclusion reached is that women's access to land ownership and control rights together with existing female - male solidarity on land matters threaten the very existence of the patriarchal system which supports the perpetuation of male dominance. Furthermore, the relatively gender sensitive intra-household redistribution of land and the encouraging new direction towards equal inheritance rights between daughters and sons are suggestive of the eventual creation of women's economic independence. This is despite the strengthening of individual landed property relations whose exploitative nature tend to maximize the functionality of capitalist patriarchy.
Development strategies and the Ethiopian peasantry: supply response and rural differentiation
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2000) Gabriel, Abebe Haile
The objective of this thesis is fourfold: (a) to seek a theoretical and historical explanation for the lack of growth and entitlement in peasant production and livelihood, (b) to investigate the extent to which peasant agriculture has responded to market forces and identify the factors that determine its responsiveness; (c) to describe how peasant production, consumption, and exchange behaviour is closely related to and governed by rural livelihood, which in turn is a function of, among other things, social relations involving disparate bargaining positions and power relations which sometimes might go against the logic of ‘market’ transactions; and (d) To examine how the functioning of rural markets and their interaction with the prevalent agrarian setting determine the evolution of agrarian structures and of markets themselves, the magnitude and social groupings of peasant supply response, as well as patterns of entitlements and livelihood in general. Four interrelated approaches are employed to grapple with the problem in the light of the objectives outlined and the set of hypotheses put forward. First, a theoretical conceptualisation of the problem is made, to situate the problem at hand within the available body of theoretical knowledge and to locate potential gaps in theory as applied to issues central to the study; that is, linking growth and entitlement objectives. Second, the problem is situated historically in its global dynamic context to determine remnants left from past policies and practices and links with global processes of change. Third, since the intricacy of rural livelihood and peasant production cannot be fully captured by using any single discipline (e.g. economics, geography, history, politics, sociology, anthropology), a multi-disciplinary approach towards understanding the problems and searching for alternative explanations is imperative. Fourth, building upon historical bearings, the research highlights how the interactions between macro-policy on the one hand and micro-processes on the other not only shape rural livelihoods but also determine policy outcomes. Two types of data were needed to meet the objectives stated, given the approaches chosen. One was macro-level secondary information on both quantitative and qualitative aspects. The other was a case study, that is, a micro-level study of peasant production conditions.The main findings of the research are as follows: one could generalise that past regimes failed to address adequately the trade-offs involved between the objectives of achieving growth and protecting the entitlement of the rural poor; the current regime recognises the tension between generating a sizeable peasant supply response and protecting entitlement of the poorer segment of the peasantry. Under the circumstances, however the impact of market liberalisation on increased peasant supply is very much limited by the extent to which the market for the most important factor of agricultural production, land is regulated; in view of Ethiopia’s land reform being one of the most radical and egalitarian in terms of its redistribute and levelling effects, it remains ironic that it couldn’t enhance agricultural growth and failed to improve peasant livelihood; a further attempt to link aspects of peasant supply response with entitlement considerations demonstrated that, given the level of productivity, the current pattern of landholding would not leave much spare ‘capacity’ to enable the production of a meaningful agricultural surplus at the household level. The basic conclusion of this thesis is that for a differentiated peasantry, encouraging market-based supply response accelerates differentiation. The strategic policy implication emerging from the analysis is that there are apparent tensions between the objectives of generating a sizeable peasant supply response and protection of entitlement for the poorer groups. It is appropriate for a balance to be struck between stimulating growth and protecting, if not creating, entitlement. Organizational imperatives are at the heart of achieving that objective. The following recommendations are made: (i) Failure of public policy effectively put the peasantry at the centre of the ‘development’ orbit remains at the heart of the agrarian crisis (ii) Future development strategies should move away from the general pattern of surplus extraction and peasant exclusion (iii) A fair, not exaggerated, credence to markets should be given without belittling the role of the state and other institutions (iv) Identification of structural constraints and real incentives at both macro and micro levels is necessary, and this should build upon peasant’s way of life, their constraints, potentials and opportunities. (v) Explicit consideration of peasant heterogeneity and the differentiated roles of markets is necessary in order to determine the extent to which a given reform can bring about intended changes and outcomes (vi) A fuller appreciation of peasant entitlement as a determinant factor in peasant supply response is crucial rendering it imperative to link the two objectives in a complimentary and consistent manner through a deliberate and careful institutional intervention.
The problem of using law by government officials in support of the course of development
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2001) Mchome, Sifuni Ernest
In this work an attempt is made to show that throughout the history of this country several laws have been enacted, at the initiative of the Government, to support the cause of development. This phenomenon is deriving from the recognition that every society needs some kind of order in the execution or implementation of various aspects of development, be they social, economic or political. The execution or implementation of these aspects necessitates the establishment of a regularised system of governance backed by law among whose tenets are (i) the setting up of the governance structures, (ii) definition of rights and obligations, (iii) creation of institutions and definition and assignment of roles to them, (iv) control and punishment of deviance from role expectation, and (v) provision of justice in the management of the affairs of the society However, although laws have been enacted to serve the course of development and are to be followed by everyone, the institutions created to enforce them have sometimes failed to follow them and instead opted for shortcuts in the execution of developmental goals. These shortcuts have invariably resulted to adverse effects to the people and communities that are targeted by these institutions as was the case in respect of Operations Okoa Mkomazi in 1988 and Kazimzumbwi in 1998. My conclusion is that law breaking by government institutions and officials, who in the first place are expected to enforce the law, is anti-development and does not jibe well with the concept of development. In the long run, this attitude may only help to ruin the reputation of the country internationally. Measures must, therefore, be taken by supervisory bodies like courts of law and Parliament to prevent this from happening.
Household coping strategies for food security in hazardous areas of rural Tanzania: the case of Kagera Region.
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2001) Kamugisha, Cosmas Aloys
This thesis has signalled the ways in which indigenous knowledge, that provides the basis for much coping behaviour, and patterns of coping themselves, interact with official attempts at household food insecurity presentation and mitigation. A sensitive administration or a Non-Governmental organization has to be able to build on such foundations. More often than not, official recovery practice pay little heed to what ordinary peasants do. This work investigated the household coping strategies for food security in Kagera Region, situated in the North West of Tanzania, whereby 90% of the population is engaged in agricultural production. Main food crops include bananas, maize, beans, cassava, sweet potatoes, yams, millet and sorghum. Cash crops are mainly coffee and tea. The coping strategies used by households in Kagera Region, entailed mobilization of resources which included using the market, the exercise of rights, calling upon obligations of other household members, kin, patrons, friends as well as theft or even violence. The objective was survival in the face of adverse events including the 1980s HIV/AII~S pandemic, the 1994 Rwanda and Burundi refugee influx, banana weevils and nematodes and the 1978/79 Iddi Amin war of aggression. The coping strategies are based on the totality of the households economic, social, political and environmental resources. Household food security in Kagera means when the household at all times has physical and economic access to sufficient food to meet the household member's dietary needs for a productive and healthy life. Unfortunately, policymakers at local level have paid little attention to household and village-based strategies for coping with food security. Rural households in hazardous areas have a capacity to cope with food insecurity. The methodology used to get the results was identifying two wards for each district of Ngara, Karagwe, Muleba and Bukoba Rural which were highly affected by the hazards. Then villages were selected from those wards and finally households. All the households in the selected villages were listed and stratified using the listing questionnaire. From each stratum or vulnerability measure, five households were selected using systematic simple random sampling starting with not vulnerable, moderately vulnerable, most vulnerable and very vulnerable. The sample survey had a total of one hundred and twenty households. There were listing and household questionnaires. The household questionnaire had five modules. The five modules were household particulars, household facilities, income generating activities, consumption and coping strategies. The population sampled was the peasant households and the method used as interviewing. The sampling procedure utilised under the probability or random based samples, was a representative of a large population of food insecure in Kagera Region. The survey was a one-off, that is, collecting current information on crosssectional basis. This form of data collection highlighted relationships between refugee influx, HIV/AIDS, banana weevils and nematodes, being food insecure and the coping strategies. Many coping strategies in Kagera Region have come under a variety of pressures which have reduced their range and efficacy. The influence of the market has improved some and eroded others. Nonetheless, coping strategies of all kinds have been crucial elements in understanding the vulnerability and designing interventions. The thesis indicates appropriate ways of improving household food security in sustainable ways. Comprehending the coping strategies is the bed-rock on which successful household food security depends and identifying the limits to and potential of the coping strategies is the basis on which household food security can be maintained. Cultivation is practiced by nearly all households in the rural areas of Kagera region. The availability of land and established social networks make cultivation the major coping strategy for food security at the preventive level. However, cultivation as a coping strategy by a household depends on circumstances and strategy, for production of both food and cash crops. Export-led development has greatly influenced cash crops production. Due to unequal exchange, declining terms of trade and increased risks, cash crops occasionally do not produce household food security growth through improved factor utilisation. Household food security has to go beyond micro-economic concentration on small farms. There is a need of studying the socio-economic constraints affecting the households at specific times. There is also a necessity of improving agricultural policies and investment plans to benefit rural households. This has to ensure that the framework of economic policies were favourable and maintenance of constant communication between authorities and technical experts at all levels as well as the peasants who will be involved.
Development of a sustainable network level pavement management system for trunk roads in Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2002) Mushule, Nurdin Kassim Mustafa
Over the years, engineers were mainly concerned with the design and construction of new roads. As a result, the world-wide expansion of road networks has resulted in roads being one of the largest public assets. Increasingly, there is a growing demand for preserving this very large asset at the time when funds for road maintenance and rehabilitation are scarce. Consequently, many road organisations in the world have developed pavement management systems (PMS) in order to utilise the available resources in most effective manner. However, a number of systems were developed without taking into account the needs and requirements of the implementing agencies. These systems tended to specify requirements, aimed at high-tech solutions that are often not sustainable. As a result many of them have been marginalised if not completely abandoned. The research presented in this thesis adopted a different approach by first defining needs and requirements of the implementing agency, after identifying the potential users. Based on this, a low cost data collection regime was designed and tested. In addition, the study compares the cost of data collection at different levels of data detail. Furthermore, the loss in data accuracy as the level of data detail progresses from very detailed level to higher Information Quality Levels has been investigated for types of surface defects found predominant in Tanzania. Furthermore, the data obtained from the field was used to specify maintenance standards that are appropriate for different situations in Tanzania. Finally, a method which will help practitioners to determine possible sustainability of a pavement management system has been suggested. The research concluded that, for the sustainability of a PMS, the methods proposed are within the means of the road agency and could be used to prepare annual work programmes and budget estimates. This in turn, would result in applying low cost, and hence sustainable, data collection methods to obtain the required road management information from a network level road management system.
Gender roles in household poverty reduction: a case of Pamulu and Julukwe villages in Moyo district in North Western Uganda.
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2003) Esuruku, Robert Senath
The focus of this study was to examine gender roles in household poverty reduction. The study was limited to Pamulu and Julukwe villages in Moyo district in North-western Uganda. The findings of this study were drawn from 50 men and 50 women respondents. Four techniques of data collection were used; these included interview, observation, questionnaire and focus group discussions. Data collected was analysed using STATA programme and the results are presented in descriptive form, percentage distribution and cross tabulations. In Pamulu and Julukwe villages, there were gender variations in definition of poverty. Women often described poverty in terms of lack of land, water, inability to raise income, lacking financial and material assistance from children, household food insecurity and poor children's welfare. For men poverty was related to inability to engage in meaningful employment and lack of productive assets, being born to a lazy father, being a casual worker and being widowed. Other indicators of poverty described by communities from Pamulu and Julukwe villages included inaccessibility to social services and poor leadership. These indicators demonstrate that poverty has many facets, which vary according to gender and location. Therefore interventions to reduce poverty must address these variations, but focusing on the root causes of poverty. When monitoring poverty, indicators should address not only the material possessions and income of local people but also social capital such as the ability to work together to achieve common goals. The major causes of household poverty in Pamulu and Julukwe villages in Moyo district included constraints to agriculture, natural calamities like drought, floods and hail storms; poor governance in terms of poor leadership, corruption and bad policies, insecurity; inadequate and costly services especially health care resulting in some people selling their household items to meet medical care. Isolation of Pamulu and Julukwe villages and the Moyo district by the government in terms of unfair distribution of services and inputs also featured and these were related to remoteness and cost barriers. The major effects of household poverty were listed as inability to meet basic needs like food and drugs resulting in death, anti-social behaviour like theft, poor health, alcoholism, domestic violence, failure to access services tax defaulting, increased school dropouts. The top community priority concerns in order to reduce household poverty were provision of quality education, health services and sanitation, information mobilisation, provision of credit services, agricultural extension services, access to rural feeder roads, access to markets, ensuring peace and security and good governance. Involvement of the poor in planning and managing their own resources would be ideal.
The constraints underpinning the provision of rental housing by low-income landlords in Dar es Salaam.
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2003) Kiduanga, Juma Rashidi
This study aimed at investigating the nature of low-income landlords and their scale of operations in the housing market in Dar es Salaam City. The study also aimed at investigating the conditions of rental housing provided by the low-income landlords and the constraints they face in the provision of that rental housing. Primary data was obtained after conducting a survey of rented houses provided in three low-income settlements; interviews were carried out with landlords, tenants, and intermediaries or "dalalis" who conduct business in the rental housing market. Also officials responsible for housing delivery in Tanzania were interviewed. Participant observation was also used to get primary data. Secondary data was obtained by going through various documents which include project documents, research papers, annual reports, government plans and documents, survey results, newspapers, academic books, journals, computer data files and statistical records. Findings show that poverty is common among low-income landlords. Rental income is used by landlords mainly to meet domestic needs and for maintenance of their housing to stem obsolescence. Very few landlords use rental income to expand their housing. These findings imply that the scale of operation of landlordism in low-income settlements in Dar es Salaam City is at a subsistence (survival), as opposed to, an accumulative level. The research found that the low-income landlords provide rental housing by converting their owner-occupied houses. The main factors motivating the landlords to rent out their owner-occupied houses are the demand for housing and the possibility of generating income. Our findings indicate that the low-income landlords provide rental housing of poor quality. Lack of sufficient finance is the biggest constraint causing the landlords to provide rental housing of poor quality. This is as a result of low rents, high maintenance costs and low income from other activities undertaken by the landlords. The landlords are not currently faced with the constraint of land inaccessibility. In order to alleviate the problem of shortage of finance faced by the low-income landlords, in summary the study made the following four recommendations: (i) There is a need for the landlords to get financial loans from the financial institutions; (ii) There is a need for the Landlords Association as an NGO to be strengthened financially so that it can provide financial loans to members (landlords); (iii) Reliable and strong rotating credit associations, ("upatu") should be formed and (iv) Strategies that take into account the reduction of poverty of the landlords and tenants should be designed. The conclusion emphasizes implementation of the above recommendations in order to eliminate the problem of shortage of finance faced by the landlords so that they can improve the quality of their housing.
Credit use and small scale businesses perfomance: a case study of non-bank institutions' credit recipients in Dar es Salaam
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2005) Temba, Eulalia Isidor
The study examined the influence of credit on the performance of small scale businesses in Tanzania. The two National Policies of Micro Finance and Small and Medium Enterprise Development have given a priority to the role of micro finance in development of the small-scale business development and the informal sector in specific. Thus the study took into consideration this national initiative of combining micro finance and small business development for economic growth. It was expected that, credit would be an enhancing factor in business performance. The sampled non-bank institutions were: The Small Industries Development Organization (SIDO), Promotion of Rural Initiatives for Development Enterprises (PRIDE) and the Mennonite Enterprise Development Associates (MEDA),all Operating in Arusha, Dar es-Salaam and Mbeya regions. Owner managers receiving credit from the Institutions for their businesses constituted our study sample. Credit use for performing different functions of the surveyed businesses was measured using both qualitative and quantitative measures. Production, advertising and selling functions of the businesses were measured against different credit counts taken. A case study design using survey method was used. Data analysis was done at three levels namely: the hundred and fifty respondents, eight in-depth case studies, and seven business clusters. A Credit Performance Model involving lending and borrowing costs, the implication of demand and supply credit and the savings of the owner managers was use to assist the researcher to arrive at empirical evidence for proving the research assumptions. The results evidenced a contribution of credit to the performance of the businesses. This had an implication that policy enforcement aiming at encouraging small businesses to make use of the existing micro finance window is crucial. It was further recommended that, household savings if properly mobilized might become a
Intellectual property rights in least developed countries: the implications of the trips agreement on accessing antiretroviral drugs in Tanzania
(Unversity of Dar es Salaam, 2010) Shemdoe, Georges Silas
This thesis presents findings of a research work conducted to examine the implications of the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement to access Anti-Retro-Viral (ARV) drugs in Tanzania. The research instruments used included: documentary review, questionnaires, interviews and discussions. Purposeful sampling procedure was used. The data collected were analyzed using the SPSS- programme and content analysis approach. The study revealed that Tanzania has not effectively utilized the TRIPS Agreement flexibilities though some policies have statements which support access to medicines and the Tanzania Patent Act has incorporated some of the TRIPS Agreement flexibilities. The study also found out that level of awareness on the TRIPS Agreement is low among Tanzanian officials, contributing to the failure to utilize the options available to ensure access to medicines. Furthermore, the study identified the factors hindering local ARV drug manufacturing. The major conclusion is that the issue of access to medicines, particularly in LDCs is still a challenge that these countries are experiencing. It is recommended: to establish mechanisms for taking advantage of the Doha Declaration to ensure access to drugs; to establish strong linkage between the institutions dealing with health and those dealing with IPR; and purposeful support should be extended to the local ARV drugs manufacturers.
Sexual and gender based violence in armed conflict situations: a case study of Gulu District in Northern Uganda
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2010) Oder, Linda Ijang
The study investigated the existing preventive and response measures to Sexual and Gender Based Violence (SGBV) in the armed conflict situation in Gulu District, Northern Uganda, and made recommendations to redress its effects in order to refine policy and program interventions. The study was conducted using interviews for Key Informants (KI), Survivors (S) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The study findings indicated that different forms of SGBV are rampant in Internally Displaced People’s (IDP) camps in Gulu District, with domestic violence, forced /early marriages and defilement being the commonest. The justice system does not function in conflict areas more especially in the IDP camps. The reporting and referral system for SGBV are not well established in the IDP camps and at District level. Some rape cases are normally referred to the Police in Gulu town, while other cases are settled by either camp leaders, clan leaders or the Local Councils through negotiations at family and clan level. The study recommends that program interventions in addressing SGBV need to be multi-sector focused and involve inter-agency coordination by government departments, United Nations (UN), other humanitarian agencies, traditional leaders and the affected communities to ensure integration of service delivery. Women should be involved in conflict resolution, resettlement and integration since they are the major survivors of SGBV. There should be comprehensive awareness and education programs in the IDP camps, for instance through drama, music and dance.
Changing gender relations and poverty levels in Uganda during the 1979-2007 war: a case study of Madi people of North West Nile
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2013) Kenyi, Gowon Lawrence
The study examined Changing Gender Relations and Poverty Levels in Uganda during 1979-2007 wars. Overall, the study examined the extent to which the series of the prolonged war affected gender relations and poverty levels among the Madi people of North West Nile Uganda. More specifically, the study examined three aspects namely, pre- war socio-economic political structures and poverty levels, changes in gender relations and poverty level and gender related constraints and challenges and coping strategies adopted. The study used a case study research design to closely investigate social gender relations and poverty levels. The study used both quantitative and qualitative research methods. A total sample size of 324 respondents including 20 leaders and officials were involved. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select respondents. The study used documentary review, questionnaires, in-depth face to face interviews, focus group discussion and key informants to provide information for the study. The quantitative data were analyzed by using Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) to establish correlations between key variables included in the specific objectives. Qualitative data was analysed contextually. Overall, study findings revealed that the prolonged wars affected gender relations and poverty levels negatively at both household and community levels. Specifically, study findings revealed that patriarchal gender relations in pre-war Madi society denied women access to resources, education, credit facilities, employment and information and women participation in political activities. The wars challenged patriarchal gender identity and relations; it offered women new economic opportunities and greater responsibilities. However women gained relative economic autonomy through entrepreneur activities. Both men and women faced serious challenges during the wars and both adopted various coping strategies to respond to these challenges. The study concluded that gender relations can positively change despite the negative effect of the wars, poverty can be fought and challenges educated Madi people about new livelihood and new life style. Finally the study recommends sensitization of both men and women about changes in gender relations and poverty levels in war situation. The study contributes new knowledge about gender analysis in pre –war and impact of war on socio cultural gender related changes. However the study recommends further research into male ego and masculinity identity crisis in war situation
Behaviour formation and girls vulnerability to hiv/aids: the case of two communities of coastal regions in Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2014) Bagile, Astronaut Rutenge
Female youths’ vulnerability to reproductive health and sexual health challenges, including HIV and AIDS in Tanzania is attributable to many factors, with the parenting process being one of them. This qualitative study, focusing on Zogowale Village in Kibaha District, Coast Region and Vibaoni Village in Handeni District, Tanga Region, used a number of research techniques to generate the required information on the sexual behaviour formation and vulnerability of female youth in the context of the HIV and AIDS pandemic. This exploratory study used 12 Case Studies and 10 Key Informant interviews, whose participants were drawn from parents of various ages and socio-economic backgrounds as well as faith-based and formal education institutions and traditional initiation rites—and the youth themselves to gather its data for analysis. Observations and documentary review were also made to triangulate the information collected through other methods. The study established that ignorance of parents on sexuality issues as they relate to HIV and AIDS limited their capacity to tutor and influence youth sexual behaviour so as to reduce their vulnerability to the pandemic and other sexual health-related challenges. The situation was found to be compounded by the absence of formal structures in the two communities under study to prepare parents on how to handle such issues with their children. It was also established that the traditional structures, such as initiation rites, coupled with social taboos and customs, failed to provide adequate and appropriate sexuality education beyond how to practice sex particularly in marriage. The communities whose parenting processes and socialisation were gender-biased ended up feminising the HIV and AIDS pandemic, with the female youth suffering the most. In fact, the inability of these parenting institutions to keep abreast of changes in the context in which these youth live undermines their capacity to moderate their sexual behaviour within the context of HIV and AIDS. On the basis of these findings, the study recommends the development of a coherent, systematic and comprehensive sexuality education targeting parents. Also, gender-based programmes should be mainstreamed in all parenting strategies and processes. Furthermore, there should be deliberate efforts exerted towards co-ordinating parenting structures, processes and programmes. In addition, ,the nation should consider having parenting-based programmes to equip parents with skills needed to produce quality and healthy youth capable of making informed decisions on their sexual health and behaviour.
An evaluation of teacher education and training in Tanzania: a comparative study between licensed and normal trained teachers
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2014) Meli, Benjamin Mbeba
The focus of this study was to make an evaluation of the two types of teacher education and training (crash and normal) programs in Tanzania. The study had the following specific objectives: to explore the nature of normal and crash programs that existed/exist for teachers’ education and training in Tanzania; to examine the nature of teachers’ operation in classroom for both types of teachers and to explore types of in-service training that are offered to both types of teachers in order to update their knowledge and skills. Furthermore, the objectives were to explore self initiatives of licensed teachers in attaining in-service training course to update their knowledge and skills and to identify challenges and problems that face tutors, licensed and normal teachers so as to suggest the way forward in terms of improvement. The study adopted a theoretical framework of an Instructional Model of teaching and learning for teachers. Such a model helps teachers to become competent in preparing lesson plans, schemes of work and preparation of enough materials to the students. The study involved a total of 200 respondents and the sample for the study was obtained by using purposive sampling and snow ball techniques. The data for this study was also collected in the existing public secondary schools, zonal secondary inspectorate department, Tanzania Institute of Education, Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, Teachers’ training colleges and some education stakeholders. Data collection methods included interview, questionnaires, documentary review, and classroom observation. The study revealed that normal trained teachers performed their teaching better. However, both types of teachers had similar weaknesses of preparation of lesson notes and plan. Several recommendations have been made for further action in order to salvage the situation. These are as follows: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training should provide and support general specific in-service training programs especially for the crash trained teachers, so that they become more knowledgeable and skilled in teaching and learning processes. The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training should also support the existing Teacher Resource Centres so that there are regular and continuous in-service activities going on at the centres to equip the teachers with more knowledge and skills. The Zonal and District Secondary Schools Inspectorate Officers should conduct frequent schools inspection in order to monitor the teachers in their day-to-day activities. School Headmasters/Mistresses should see to it that daily routines of the teachers are monitored and that local arrangements are made for teachers to share knowledge and skills among themselves. Lastly, the Tanzania Institute of Education should ensure that school curricula are in operation for a long time before changing them.
Corporate social responsibility management systems in Tanzania Opportunities, Challenges and Prospects for Local Communities’ Participation in the Decision-Making Processes
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2015) Mbirigenda, Shukrani Kassian
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is not simply a business case but a tool for companies to contribute in solving societal problems. However, there is evidence that local communities in Tanzania are manifesting negative responses to CSR projects and programmes. This study set out to interrogate the CSR management systems that companies in Tanzania employ and the opportunities, challenges and prospects that the local communities have in participating in CSR decision-making processes, and if the outcomes had any correlation to the negative responses manifested by some local communities towards CSR projects. The study was largely qualitative. It used interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs) and observations to collect data. It used stakeholder theory to analyse and explain the relationship between companies and communities, how the two key actors relate and co-exist, and how that relationship could be significantly improved through CSR. The study found out that both companies and government had no common CSR management systems in place. It further found that companies did not engage local communities in decision-making processes and thus CSR tended to create local communities’ dependence on the companies. The study concluded that there is a strong correlation between lack of participation of local communities in the CSR decision-making processes and local communities’ negative responses towards CSR projects. The study therefore recommends that companies should institutionalize community participation in CSR decision-making and the government should seek to coordinate and promote CSR programmes through an explicit CSR policy.
Factors affecting provision of psychosocial support services to orphans under orphanage care in Dar- es salaam city Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2015) Msoka, Agnes Cyril
The study examined the factors affecting the provision of the psychosocial support services to orphaned children under orphanage care in Dar es Salaam City. The study focused on the situation of the orphanage settings according to the requirements of the policy guidelines, the situation of the orphaned children before and after joining the orphanage; types of psychosocial support services available to children in the orphanages; resources for providing psychosocial support services to orphanage children; psychosocial adjustment mechanisms adopted by children to fit into orphanage life and the challenges encountered in the provision of psychosocial support services to children in the orphanages. The study used a survey approach that combined the quantitative and qualitative research methods. A total sample of 233 respondents was involved in the study; 203 orphaned children, 17 caregivers, 10 directors /owners of the orphanages and 3 ministry officials. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select respondents. The study used questionnaires, focus group discussions, in-depth face to face interviews, non-participatory observations and documentary review. The findings indicated high concentration of material support services while emotional, informational and appraisal services was not given priority. Emotional support to children was inadequate because there were few untrained care givers with high child caregiver ratios. Non- human resources were scarce so resulting into limited access to basic needs for children. This scarcity led to the problem of children adjusting to the orphanage environment. The study concluded that the provision of psychosocial support services in the orphanages is still very limited due to the limited resources and expertise to support children psychologically. Finally, the study recommends strengthening the provision of psychosocial services in the orphanages, through government and community involvement. Children’s safety and protection through family reunification should be a priority of the government and the orphanages. Providing adequate and appropriate training for orphanage caregivers and operators to create home like environment for children should be an essential requirement for establishing and operating an orphanage.
Determinants of collective action in public primary school committees in Arusha city and Iringa district
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2015) Manara, Kenny Kamana
Using cross-sectional and case study designs, the study investigated determinants of collective action in public primary school committees by comparing the effects of school autonomy measures (power over school planning, power over school finance, power over school accountability) and social heterogeneity factors (gender inequality, ethnic diversity, age differences, literacy disparity and residential locations) between Arusha City and Iringa District. The quantitative section covered a survey of 26 school committees (156 respondents) in Arusha City and 26 school committees (156 respondents) in Iringa District. In each site, focus group discussions (FGDs) covered 10 chairpersons and 10 women members, key informant interviews covered 10 head teachers, and direct observation in one meeting. The study found collective action in school committees higher in Arusha City and lower in Iringa District. Using multiple regression analysis, it demonstrates that all three school autonomy measures are not strong predictors of collective action in school committees across the study sites. Social heterogeneity factors (ethnic diversity with beta coefficient -.164 statistically significance at .038 and age differences with coefficient .208 statistically significance at .008) are strong predictors in Iringa District. Similarly, age differences variable with coefficient .198 statistically significance at .010 is only predictor in Arusha City. The mutual trust mediates the effects of social heterogeneity in Arusha City (indirect effect) and failed to mediate in Iringa District (direct effect). The qualitative section triangulated these findings in reality. Conclusively, the study suggests that school autonomy alone could not determine collective action in public primary school committees. The social context of school level actors is equally important because social heterogeneity of members have direct effects in Iringa District and indirect effect in Arusha City. This study contributes to the existing literature in school-based management (SBM) and suggests solutions to free ride problem arising in public primary school committees.
Making group social capital work for youth unemployment in Tanzania: the case of rural areas in Iringa region
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2016) Manyerere, David James
This study examined how and the extent to which Group Social Capital (GSC) works to reduce youth unemployment in rural Tanzania, focusing on the experience of the Youth Economic Group (YEGs) in Iringa region. The four specific study objectives were to: find out the extent to which features of GSC available in YEGs contribute in reducing youth unemployment; determine the relationship between socio-economic backgrounds of youth in YEGs and the capacity of GSC in reducing youth unemployment; assess how GSC in YEGs is nurtured and sustained; and assess problems and challenges emerging from youth related employment interventions such as YEG. Probability and non-probability sampling designs were used to sample a total of 231 respondents, including state and non-state officials, youth and village residents. The data were collected through interviews, Focus Group Discussions, questionnaires and an observation checklist. The study used a mixed approach to analyze the data, whereby both qualitative and quantitative analysis was performed using the Nvivo V7 and SPSS V16 computer programs respectively and employed an exploratory and descriptive research designs and case study method. The findings revealed contradictory evidence. By staying together in groups and undertaking various Income Generation Activities (IGAs) and mutual cooperation with external agents, the YEGs were unveiled to have had various forms of GSC. Some of those include trust, networks, group norms and values, and civic engagement. However, contrary to the expectations of forming the YEG programme, several YEGs displayed poor performance due to the relatively low level of GSC, as manifested by the members’ deviant behaviours. These included untrustworthiness and a lack of respect which, in turn, hindered the successful accomplishment of the YEG programme’s intended objectives. Parenting and socialization processes influenced youth behaviour; religious institutions played a more significant role in guiding and shaping the positive youth behaviour that led to improved GSC. Yet, even though the collected evidence established existence of positive relationship between youth’s socio-economic background, GSC in YEGs and creation of employment opportunities, overwhelming majority of YEGs failed to reduce rural youth unemployment given poor economic profile of YEGs. The unique contribution of the study to new knowledge generation is that, when cognitive and structural social capital features are effectively nurtured and sustained by the group members’ efforts and stakeholders’ support is provided in the context of rural areas in developing countries, such as Tanzania, these provide the potential energy to facilitate GSC among Income Generation Group (IGGs) members to reduce youth unemployment. From the study, several recommendations for actions and policy issues that might improve YEGs’ performance emerged. These include: creating youth training centres and sustainable structured programmes to install multiple socio-economic skills and knowledge to address multi-faceted challenges and problems; advocating for policy review that insist on a parenting and socialisation process at an earlier growth stage for easy moulding and mentoring of potential behaviours, such as a spirit of hard work, self-efficacy and persistence; insisting on the bottom-up approach to support youth to take part in decision-making, that facilitates access to and the effective and efficient utilization of local resources in the given rural context. For further research, similar studies with inclusion of other aspects or marginalised groups in different geographical settings are recommended.

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