PhD Theses

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Behaviour formation and girls vulnerability to hiv/aids: the case of two communities of coastal regions in Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2014) Bagile, Astronaut Rutenge
Female youths’ vulnerability to reproductive health and sexual health challenges, including HIV and AIDS in Tanzania is attributable to many factors, with the parenting process being one of them. This qualitative study, focusing on Zogowale Village in Kibaha District, Coast Region and Vibaoni Village in Handeni District, Tanga Region, used a number of research techniques to generate the required information on the sexual behaviour formation and vulnerability of female youth in the context of the HIV and AIDS pandemic. This exploratory study used 12 Case Studies and 10 Key Informant interviews, whose participants were drawn from parents of various ages and socio-economic backgrounds as well as faith-based and formal education institutions and traditional initiation rites—and the youth themselves to gather its data for analysis. Observations and documentary review were also made to triangulate the information collected through other methods. The study established that ignorance of parents on sexuality issues as they relate to HIV and AIDS limited their capacity to tutor and influence youth sexual behaviour so as to reduce their vulnerability to the pandemic and other sexual health-related challenges. The situation was found to be compounded by the absence of formal structures in the two communities under study to prepare parents on how to handle such issues with their children. It was also established that the traditional structures, such as initiation rites, coupled with social taboos and customs, failed to provide adequate and appropriate sexuality education beyond how to practice sex particularly in marriage. The communities whose parenting processes and socialisation were gender-biased ended up feminising the HIV and AIDS pandemic, with the female youth suffering the most. In fact, the inability of these parenting institutions to keep abreast of changes in the context in which these youth live undermines their capacity to moderate their sexual behaviour within the context of HIV and AIDS. On the basis of these findings, the study recommends the development of a coherent, systematic and comprehensive sexuality education targeting parents. Also, gender-based programmes should be mainstreamed in all parenting strategies and processes. Furthermore, there should be deliberate efforts exerted towards co-ordinating parenting structures, processes and programmes. In addition, ,the nation should consider having parenting-based programmes to equip parents with skills needed to produce quality and healthy youth capable of making informed decisions on their sexual health and behaviour.
Business associations, Social Capital and the performance of Small and Medium Enterprises in East Africa: a comparative study of food processing enterprises of Rwanda and Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2017) Gamba, Freddy Jirabi
The study examined the contribution of Social Capital (SC) in Business Associations (BAs) to enhancing the performance of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in East Africa with reference to food processing in Tanzania and Rwanda. The objectives were to establish the performance of BAs, analyse SC in BAs, determine the contribution of BAs to SMEs and identify the outcomes associated with BAs’ work. Two BAs were studied from each country under review. The study used both quantitative and qualitative research techniques and primary data from 145 SMEs. Semi-structured questionnaire and unstructrured interviews were used. The analysis employed the composite constructs of SC using multi-indicators of every SC variable for comparison between BAs. Overall, the study findings show that based on 12 BAs performance indicators, Rwanda’s BAs perform better than those in Tanzania; there was more SC in Rwanda’s BAs than Tanzania’s BAs in terms of trust and social cohesion, collective action and information sharing; and Rwanda’s BAs contribute relatively more to the SMEs’ performance than Tanzania’s BAs. SC’s Trust and social cohesion had indicators such as members' feeling valued by BAs, members trust to BA leaders and fellow members, tendency of visiting each other, possibilty to get help and freedom to speak. Collective action gauged the ability and willingness of BA members to confront issues on unitary joint approach. Information sharing tracked the extent of information sharing in BAs, members’ choice of source of information, and BAs’ facilitation of information sharing. BAs contribution to SMEs is through facilitating access to finance, R&D, management and marketing, production quality and technology and trade fair and exhibitions. As an emergent issue, the study found also that BA members dealing with specialized products tend to create different social relations from those dealing with diversified business portifolios. It is recommended integrate SC in policy, strategy and operation reforms and machineries and the use of BA, SC and Stakeholders Relational Model for decision making and prioritization. The implication is that countries with more SC and efficient BAs can develop faster than others.
Changing gender relations and poverty levels in Uganda during the 1979-2007 war: a case study of Madi people of North West Nile
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2013) Kenyi, Gowon Lawrence
The study examined Changing Gender Relations and Poverty Levels in Uganda during 1979-2007 wars. Overall, the study examined the extent to which the series of the prolonged war affected gender relations and poverty levels among the Madi people of North West Nile Uganda. More specifically, the study examined three aspects namely, pre- war socio-economic political structures and poverty levels, changes in gender relations and poverty level and gender related constraints and challenges and coping strategies adopted. The study used a case study research design to closely investigate social gender relations and poverty levels. The study used both quantitative and qualitative research methods. A total sample size of 324 respondents including 20 leaders and officials were involved. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select respondents. The study used documentary review, questionnaires, in-depth face to face interviews, focus group discussion and key informants to provide information for the study. The quantitative data were analyzed by using Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) to establish correlations between key variables included in the specific objectives. Qualitative data was analysed contextually. Overall, study findings revealed that the prolonged wars affected gender relations and poverty levels negatively at both household and community levels. Specifically, study findings revealed that patriarchal gender relations in pre-war Madi society denied women access to resources, education, credit facilities, employment and information and women participation in political activities. The wars challenged patriarchal gender identity and relations; it offered women new economic opportunities and greater responsibilities. However women gained relative economic autonomy through entrepreneur activities. Both men and women faced serious challenges during the wars and both adopted various coping strategies to respond to these challenges. The study concluded that gender relations can positively change despite the negative effect of the wars, poverty can be fought and challenges educated Madi people about new livelihood and new life style. Finally the study recommends sensitization of both men and women about changes in gender relations and poverty levels in war situation. The study contributes new knowledge about gender analysis in pre –war and impact of war on socio cultural gender related changes. However the study recommends further research into male ego and masculinity identity crisis in war situation
The constraints underpinning the provision of rental housing by low-income landlords in Dar es Salaam.
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2003) Kiduanga, Juma Rashidi
This study aimed at investigating the nature of low-income landlords and their scale of operations in the housing market in Dar es Salaam City. The study also aimed at investigating the conditions of rental housing provided by the low-income landlords and the constraints they face in the provision of that rental housing. Primary data was obtained after conducting a survey of rented houses provided in three low-income settlements; interviews were carried out with landlords, tenants, and intermediaries or "dalalis" who conduct business in the rental housing market. Also officials responsible for housing delivery in Tanzania were interviewed. Participant observation was also used to get primary data. Secondary data was obtained by going through various documents which include project documents, research papers, annual reports, government plans and documents, survey results, newspapers, academic books, journals, computer data files and statistical records. Findings show that poverty is common among low-income landlords. Rental income is used by landlords mainly to meet domestic needs and for maintenance of their housing to stem obsolescence. Very few landlords use rental income to expand their housing. These findings imply that the scale of operation of landlordism in low-income settlements in Dar es Salaam City is at a subsistence (survival), as opposed to, an accumulative level. The research found that the low-income landlords provide rental housing by converting their owner-occupied houses. The main factors motivating the landlords to rent out their owner-occupied houses are the demand for housing and the possibility of generating income. Our findings indicate that the low-income landlords provide rental housing of poor quality. Lack of sufficient finance is the biggest constraint causing the landlords to provide rental housing of poor quality. This is as a result of low rents, high maintenance costs and low income from other activities undertaken by the landlords. The landlords are not currently faced with the constraint of land inaccessibility. In order to alleviate the problem of shortage of finance faced by the low-income landlords, in summary the study made the following four recommendations: (i) There is a need for the landlords to get financial loans from the financial institutions; (ii) There is a need for the Landlords Association as an NGO to be strengthened financially so that it can provide financial loans to members (landlords); (iii) Reliable and strong rotating credit associations, ("upatu") should be formed and (iv) Strategies that take into account the reduction of poverty of the landlords and tenants should be designed. The conclusion emphasizes implementation of the above recommendations in order to eliminate the problem of shortage of finance faced by the landlords so that they can improve the quality of their housing.
Corporate social responsibility management systems in Tanzania Opportunities, Challenges and Prospects for Local Communities’ Participation in the Decision-Making Processes
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2015) Mbirigenda, Shukrani Kassian
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is not simply a business case but a tool for companies to contribute in solving societal problems. However, there is evidence that local communities in Tanzania are manifesting negative responses to CSR projects and programmes. This study set out to interrogate the CSR management systems that companies in Tanzania employ and the opportunities, challenges and prospects that the local communities have in participating in CSR decision-making processes, and if the outcomes had any correlation to the negative responses manifested by some local communities towards CSR projects. The study was largely qualitative. It used interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs) and observations to collect data. It used stakeholder theory to analyse and explain the relationship between companies and communities, how the two key actors relate and co-exist, and how that relationship could be significantly improved through CSR. The study found out that both companies and government had no common CSR management systems in place. It further found that companies did not engage local communities in decision-making processes and thus CSR tended to create local communities’ dependence on the companies. The study concluded that there is a strong correlation between lack of participation of local communities in the CSR decision-making processes and local communities’ negative responses towards CSR projects. The study therefore recommends that companies should institutionalize community participation in CSR decision-making and the government should seek to coordinate and promote CSR programmes through an explicit CSR policy.
Credit use and small scale businesses perfomance: a case study of non-bank institutions' credit recipients in Dar es Salaam
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2005) Temba, Eulalia Isidor
The study examined the influence of credit on the performance of small scale businesses in Tanzania. The two National Policies of Micro Finance and Small and Medium Enterprise Development have given a priority to the role of micro finance in development of the small-scale business development and the informal sector in specific. Thus the study took into consideration this national initiative of combining micro finance and small business development for economic growth. It was expected that, credit would be an enhancing factor in business performance. The sampled non-bank institutions were: The Small Industries Development Organization (SIDO), Promotion of Rural Initiatives for Development Enterprises (PRIDE) and the Mennonite Enterprise Development Associates (MEDA),all Operating in Arusha, Dar es-Salaam and Mbeya regions. Owner managers receiving credit from the Institutions for their businesses constituted our study sample. Credit use for performing different functions of the surveyed businesses was measured using both qualitative and quantitative measures. Production, advertising and selling functions of the businesses were measured against different credit counts taken. A case study design using survey method was used. Data analysis was done at three levels namely: the hundred and fifty respondents, eight in-depth case studies, and seven business clusters. A Credit Performance Model involving lending and borrowing costs, the implication of demand and supply credit and the savings of the owner managers was use to assist the researcher to arrive at empirical evidence for proving the research assumptions. The results evidenced a contribution of credit to the performance of the businesses. This had an implication that policy enforcement aiming at encouraging small businesses to make use of the existing micro finance window is crucial. It was further recommended that, household savings if properly mobilized might become a
Determinants of collective action in public primary school committees in Arusha city and Iringa district
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2015) Manara, Kenny Kamana
Using cross-sectional and case study designs, the study investigated determinants of collective action in public primary school committees by comparing the effects of school autonomy measures (power over school planning, power over school finance, power over school accountability) and social heterogeneity factors (gender inequality, ethnic diversity, age differences, literacy disparity and residential locations) between Arusha City and Iringa District. The quantitative section covered a survey of 26 school committees (156 respondents) in Arusha City and 26 school committees (156 respondents) in Iringa District. In each site, focus group discussions (FGDs) covered 10 chairpersons and 10 women members, key informant interviews covered 10 head teachers, and direct observation in one meeting. The study found collective action in school committees higher in Arusha City and lower in Iringa District. Using multiple regression analysis, it demonstrates that all three school autonomy measures are not strong predictors of collective action in school committees across the study sites. Social heterogeneity factors (ethnic diversity with beta coefficient -.164 statistically significance at .038 and age differences with coefficient .208 statistically significance at .008) are strong predictors in Iringa District. Similarly, age differences variable with coefficient .198 statistically significance at .010 is only predictor in Arusha City. The mutual trust mediates the effects of social heterogeneity in Arusha City (indirect effect) and failed to mediate in Iringa District (direct effect). The qualitative section triangulated these findings in reality. Conclusively, the study suggests that school autonomy alone could not determine collective action in public primary school committees. The social context of school level actors is equally important because social heterogeneity of members have direct effects in Iringa District and indirect effect in Arusha City. This study contributes to the existing literature in school-based management (SBM) and suggests solutions to free ride problem arising in public primary school committees.
Determinants of gender mainstreaming in sexual and reproductive health: a case of Selected Family Planning and HIV and AIDS Projects in Malawi
(University of Dar es salaam, 2019) Jackson, Anthony Malunga
The study examined gender mainstreaming determinants in Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) especially Family Planning and HIV/AIDS projects in three districts in Malawi. The study had three objectives around (i) the influence of gender related laws and policies (ii) the preparedness of organisations and staff and (iii) the socio-cultural factors on gender mainstreaming strategy in Family Planning and HIV/AIDS projects. The study employed the convergent research design using a mixed methods approach to collect data using a survey (N=222), FGDs (N=14), in-depth interview with gender specialists (N=16), structured interviews with organisation staff (N=15) and individual interviews with community leaders (N=25). It was based on systems theory and rights centred approach. Overall, first objective findings showed that laws and policies at international and national level were indeed pre-requisite for gender mainstreaming in sexual and reproductive health. Largely, the laws are available, but are scarcely known and used by the organisations staff in the course of the design and implementation of the SRH projects. As a result, the laws have had no influence in the implementation of the projects. This was not consistent with the expectation of the projects that were intended to be implemented within a gender mainstreaming strategy and rights based approach. Secondly, on the second objective, it was found that both the organisations and the staff involved in the SRH projects were compromised in terms of embracing institutional gender culture and having adequate gender mainstreaming capacity respectively. As a result, the study established that the organizations staff did not do a gender analysis to understand the context of the SRH projects prior to the full implementation. This affected the opportunity for implementing gender transformative activities to challenge gender inequalities. The beneficiaries mostly got involved in initial project cycle activities like awareness rising than the expected whole project cycle involvement. Thus, participation and involvement was at tokenism level. The activities were largely Family
Development of a sustainable network level pavement management system for trunk roads in Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2002) Mushule, Nurdin Kassim Mustafa
Over the years, engineers were mainly concerned with the design and construction of new roads. As a result, the world-wide expansion of road networks has resulted in roads being one of the largest public assets. Increasingly, there is a growing demand for preserving this very large asset at the time when funds for road maintenance and rehabilitation are scarce. Consequently, many road organisations in the world have developed pavement management systems (PMS) in order to utilise the available resources in most effective manner. However, a number of systems were developed without taking into account the needs and requirements of the implementing agencies. These systems tended to specify requirements, aimed at high-tech solutions that are often not sustainable. As a result many of them have been marginalised if not completely abandoned. The research presented in this thesis adopted a different approach by first defining needs and requirements of the implementing agency, after identifying the potential users. Based on this, a low cost data collection regime was designed and tested. In addition, the study compares the cost of data collection at different levels of data detail. Furthermore, the loss in data accuracy as the level of data detail progresses from very detailed level to higher Information Quality Levels has been investigated for types of surface defects found predominant in Tanzania. Furthermore, the data obtained from the field was used to specify maintenance standards that are appropriate for different situations in Tanzania. Finally, a method which will help practitioners to determine possible sustainability of a pavement management system has been suggested. The research concluded that, for the sustainability of a PMS, the methods proposed are within the means of the road agency and could be used to prepare annual work programmes and budget estimates. This in turn, would result in applying low cost, and hence sustainable, data collection methods to obtain the required road management information from a network level road management system.
Development strategies and the Ethiopian peasantry: supply response and rural differentiation
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2000) Gabriel, Abebe Haile
The objective of this thesis is fourfold: (a) to seek a theoretical and historical explanation for the lack of growth and entitlement in peasant production and livelihood, (b) to investigate the extent to which peasant agriculture has responded to market forces and identify the factors that determine its responsiveness; (c) to describe how peasant production, consumption, and exchange behaviour is closely related to and governed by rural livelihood, which in turn is a function of, among other things, social relations involving disparate bargaining positions and power relations which sometimes might go against the logic of ‘market’ transactions; and (d) To examine how the functioning of rural markets and their interaction with the prevalent agrarian setting determine the evolution of agrarian structures and of markets themselves, the magnitude and social groupings of peasant supply response, as well as patterns of entitlements and livelihood in general. Four interrelated approaches are employed to grapple with the problem in the light of the objectives outlined and the set of hypotheses put forward. First, a theoretical conceptualisation of the problem is made, to situate the problem at hand within the available body of theoretical knowledge and to locate potential gaps in theory as applied to issues central to the study; that is, linking growth and entitlement objectives. Second, the problem is situated historically in its global dynamic context to determine remnants left from past policies and practices and links with global processes of change. Third, since the intricacy of rural livelihood and peasant production cannot be fully captured by using any single discipline (e.g. economics, geography, history, politics, sociology, anthropology), a multi-disciplinary approach towards understanding the problems and searching for alternative explanations is imperative. Fourth, building upon historical bearings, the research highlights how the interactions between macro-policy on the one hand and micro-processes on the other not only shape rural livelihoods but also determine policy outcomes. Two types of data were needed to meet the objectives stated, given the approaches chosen. One was macro-level secondary information on both quantitative and qualitative aspects. The other was a case study, that is, a micro-level study of peasant production conditions.The main findings of the research are as follows: one could generalise that past regimes failed to address adequately the trade-offs involved between the objectives of achieving growth and protecting the entitlement of the rural poor; the current regime recognises the tension between generating a sizeable peasant supply response and protecting entitlement of the poorer segment of the peasantry. Under the circumstances, however the impact of market liberalisation on increased peasant supply is very much limited by the extent to which the market for the most important factor of agricultural production, land is regulated; in view of Ethiopia’s land reform being one of the most radical and egalitarian in terms of its redistribute and levelling effects, it remains ironic that it couldn’t enhance agricultural growth and failed to improve peasant livelihood; a further attempt to link aspects of peasant supply response with entitlement considerations demonstrated that, given the level of productivity, the current pattern of landholding would not leave much spare ‘capacity’ to enable the production of a meaningful agricultural surplus at the household level. The basic conclusion of this thesis is that for a differentiated peasantry, encouraging market-based supply response accelerates differentiation. The strategic policy implication emerging from the analysis is that there are apparent tensions between the objectives of generating a sizeable peasant supply response and protection of entitlement for the poorer groups. It is appropriate for a balance to be struck between stimulating growth and protecting, if not creating, entitlement. Organizational imperatives are at the heart of achieving that objective. The following recommendations are made: (i) Failure of public policy effectively put the peasantry at the centre of the ‘development’ orbit remains at the heart of the agrarian crisis (ii) Future development strategies should move away from the general pattern of surplus extraction and peasant exclusion (iii) A fair, not exaggerated, credence to markets should be given without belittling the role of the state and other institutions (iv) Identification of structural constraints and real incentives at both macro and micro levels is necessary, and this should build upon peasant’s way of life, their constraints, potentials and opportunities. (v) Explicit consideration of peasant heterogeneity and the differentiated roles of markets is necessary in order to determine the extent to which a given reform can bring about intended changes and outcomes (vi) A fuller appreciation of peasant entitlement as a determinant factor in peasant supply response is crucial rendering it imperative to link the two objectives in a complimentary and consistent manner through a deliberate and careful institutional intervention.
Dynamic relationships between formal and informal institutions in governance of water resources: a case of Ruaha Sub – Basin, Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2018) Kahimba, Joseph
This study set out to examine the dynamic relationships between formal and informal water institutions in governance of water resources and its implications on water accessibility and control by the local communities in Ruaha Sub-Basin, Tanzania. The study employed case study design whereby three study areas were involved to represent the upper, middle and lower sub-catchments of the Ruaha Sub-Basin. Five techniques were used to obtain empirical data in this study: questionnaires, interviews, Focused Group Discussions (FGDs), documentary review and observations. Qualitative data were analysed using the thematic framework approach whereas quantitative data were analysed statistically using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 20. The findings of this study revealed that in Ruaha Sub-Basin both formal and informal systems guided the access and control of water resources among the local communities. However, the trend towards dominance of formal institutions for water related interactions was very clear; and some of the informal arrangements were formalized and integrated into formal water governance arrangements. This brought different implications to the different groups of local communities in terms of their water accessibility and control. Holders of formal water use permits both group and private holders had relatively more access to water. On the other hand, pastoralists and valley bottoms peasants (non owners of water use permits) were on the losing side in terms of water accessibility following the introduction of formal institutions in water governance at the community level. Water User Associations (WUAs) could be appropriate vehicle through which the local communities could exercise control and participate in water related decision making process. However, the current internal and external problems facing most of WUAs turned the local communities into the losing control of their water resources. Based on these findings, it was recommended that Basin Water Authorities in this case Rufiji Basin Water Officers (RBWOs) should develop sound water resources management and development strategies which put the vulnerable groups first in water accessibility and control. Also, the study recommends that for WUAs to become effective vehicle through which local communities can have access to and control of water resources, the government through the Ministry of Water and Irrigation and the Ministry of Agriculture should provide financial and technical assistance to WUAs so that they can stop confining themselves to irrigation agriculture water use only. Instead, WUAs should expand their water systems so as to accommodate majority of different groups of water users including the pastoralists. It is further recommended that pastoralists should be assisted to initiate some kind of pastoralists’ water user associations. Through the associations, pastoralists can not only be able to attract financial and technical support to construct permanent livestock watering points, but also the associations could become instrumental for negotiations with other water user groups within the basin.
An enquiry into gender mainstreaming in local councils in Arusha city and Meru district council in Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2017) Lucas, Leticia
This study inquired into the implementation of gender mainstreaming strategy in Local Councils (LCs) in Tanzania with the case studies of Arusha City and Meru District local councils. The study was glided by four specific objectives. The first specific objective examined whether the basic pre-requisites of implementing gender mainstreaming strategy were adopted in the local councils of the study. The second one assessed the capacities of employees to implement the strategy in LCs. The third objective identified the outcomes of gender equality initiatives in LCs of the study. The fourth, explored the challenges faced by LCs and coping measures towards adequate implementation of gender mainstreaming strategy in the selected local councils. This study employed the Critical Third World Feminist Theory (CTWFT). The study adopted descriptive research design with a case study method. The mixed method research approach was used to collect data. The sample comprised of 382 respondents comprising 130 men and 252 women who were purposively and randomly sampled. Instruments for data collection included questionnaire guides, Focus Group Discussion checklist, interview guides and observation checklist. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics with tables of frequencies and percentages. Qualitative data were analysed by content analysis. The findings of the study revealed that there were some elements of considering men’s and women’s needs in development interventions in the LCs of the study. However, most of the basic pre-requisites to implement gender mainstreaming strategy were not yet evidently adopted in the studied local councils. For instance, the two councils had no gender mainstreaming tools or guidelines providing approaches to mainstreaming gender strategy. There were no visible capacities of employees to implement gender mainstreaming strategy in the area of study. There was crude evidence to demonstrate the outcomes of the initiatives of gender equity and equality in the selected local councils. The major challenges towards execution of gender mainstreaming strategy included lack of political will, insufficient financial resources for employees’ capacity building, and constraining cultural discriminating practices. The conclusion made by this study as a contribution to knowledge is that there was no consistent or planned implementation of gender mainstreaming strategy in the selected LCs. Consequently, gender equity and equality as end goal of the implementation was not yet attained. As coping measures, the study recommends strong gender awareness creation programmes and designing the tools or guidelines providing approaches to implementing gender mainstreaming strategy. Moreover, creating a strong networking with institutions implementing the strategy to assist in the process is found necessary. Elimination of all forms of gender discrimination resulting from traditions and culture is also recommended.
An evaluation of teacher education and training in Tanzania: a comparative study between licensed and normal trained teachers
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2014) Meli, Benjamin Mbeba
The focus of this study was to make an evaluation of the two types of teacher education and training (crash and normal) programs in Tanzania. The study had the following specific objectives: to explore the nature of normal and crash programs that existed/exist for teachers’ education and training in Tanzania; to examine the nature of teachers’ operation in classroom for both types of teachers and to explore types of in-service training that are offered to both types of teachers in order to update their knowledge and skills. Furthermore, the objectives were to explore self initiatives of licensed teachers in attaining in-service training course to update their knowledge and skills and to identify challenges and problems that face tutors, licensed and normal teachers so as to suggest the way forward in terms of improvement. The study adopted a theoretical framework of an Instructional Model of teaching and learning for teachers. Such a model helps teachers to become competent in preparing lesson plans, schemes of work and preparation of enough materials to the students. The study involved a total of 200 respondents and the sample for the study was obtained by using purposive sampling and snow ball techniques. The data for this study was also collected in the existing public secondary schools, zonal secondary inspectorate department, Tanzania Institute of Education, Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, Teachers’ training colleges and some education stakeholders. Data collection methods included interview, questionnaires, documentary review, and classroom observation. The study revealed that normal trained teachers performed their teaching better. However, both types of teachers had similar weaknesses of preparation of lesson notes and plan. Several recommendations have been made for further action in order to salvage the situation. These are as follows: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training should provide and support general specific in-service training programs especially for the crash trained teachers, so that they become more knowledgeable and skilled in teaching and learning processes. The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training should also support the existing Teacher Resource Centres so that there are regular and continuous in-service activities going on at the centres to equip the teachers with more knowledge and skills. The Zonal and District Secondary Schools Inspectorate Officers should conduct frequent schools inspection in order to monitor the teachers in their day-to-day activities. School Headmasters/Mistresses should see to it that daily routines of the teachers are monitored and that local arrangements are made for teachers to share knowledge and skills among themselves. Lastly, the Tanzania Institute of Education should ensure that school curricula are in operation for a long time before changing them.
Factors affecting provision of psychosocial support services to orphans under orphanage care in Dar- es salaam city Tanzania
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2015) Msoka, Agnes Cyril
The study examined the factors affecting the provision of the psychosocial support services to orphaned children under orphanage care in Dar es Salaam City. The study focused on the situation of the orphanage settings according to the requirements of the policy guidelines, the situation of the orphaned children before and after joining the orphanage; types of psychosocial support services available to children in the orphanages; resources for providing psychosocial support services to orphanage children; psychosocial adjustment mechanisms adopted by children to fit into orphanage life and the challenges encountered in the provision of psychosocial support services to children in the orphanages. The study used a survey approach that combined the quantitative and qualitative research methods. A total sample of 233 respondents was involved in the study; 203 orphaned children, 17 caregivers, 10 directors /owners of the orphanages and 3 ministry officials. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select respondents. The study used questionnaires, focus group discussions, in-depth face to face interviews, non-participatory observations and documentary review. The findings indicated high concentration of material support services while emotional, informational and appraisal services was not given priority. Emotional support to children was inadequate because there were few untrained care givers with high child caregiver ratios. Non- human resources were scarce so resulting into limited access to basic needs for children. This scarcity led to the problem of children adjusting to the orphanage environment. The study concluded that the provision of psychosocial support services in the orphanages is still very limited due to the limited resources and expertise to support children psychologically. Finally, the study recommends strengthening the provision of psychosocial services in the orphanages, through government and community involvement. Children’s safety and protection through family reunification should be a priority of the government and the orphanages. Providing adequate and appropriate training for orphanage caregivers and operators to create home like environment for children should be an essential requirement for establishing and operating an orphanage.
Factors contributing to the gender gap in access to financial services among women owning micro and small enterprises in urban Tanzania: the case of selected institutions in Dar es Salaam region
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2017) Msoka, Elizabeth Michael
Various financial institutions engage entrepreneurs to access financial services for the growth of their enterprises. However, available literature shows that there exists gender imbalance in women’s owned MSEs access to financial services in Tanzania.This study explored factors that contribute to the gender gap in women’s owned MSEs access to financial services in Tanzania. The study is guided by two theories: the institutional theory and feminist theory. It also utilised a cross-sectional design that combines both qualitative and quantitative research approaches from a total sample of 350 respondents. The respondents comprised of: 40 officials within selected institutions, 300 women owning micro and small ventures in the study area as well as 10 key informants among ministry officials and women business associations. Both, purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select respondents. The study relied on data obtained through the use of questionnaires, interview guides, observation checklists and secondary data analysis. Overall, the study found that both individual and institutional factors contribute to the gender gap in women owned MSEs access to financial services. Evidently, more than a half of officers from selected institutions were neither aware nor conversant of the meaning of the 2000 Tanzania’s Women Development and Gender Policy (WDGP). This has contributed to the poor implementation of the policy which to large extent strives to redress gender gaps and inequalities between men and women. Further, the study found that negative perceptions of official working with institutions financing MSEs contributed to the limited number of women enterprises to access financial services. Managers and officials of selected institutions perceived women owning small and micro enterprises to possess less entrepreneurial attributes including: management experience, negotiations skills and risk-taking propensity. Negative perception towards women entrepreneurs has taken the form of lower rates of approval for loan applications. Further, the study established that women owning MSEs were more constrained by institutional than individual factors in seeking financial support. Among the institutional factors include a need of collateral requirement, high interest rates and discrimination against women. The study concludes that the 2000 Tanzania’s Women Development and Gender Policy (WDGP) coordinated by the then Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children (MoCDGC) cannot be claimed to have helped much reduce the gender gaps in access to financial services in Tanzania due to failure in addressing both individual and institutional factors from the supply side that constrain women owned MSEs access to financial services. Based on the findings, the study has advanced a number of recommendations. Amongst them include government and monetary authorities should exert serious effort to support gender driven credit policies targeted at men and women entrepreneurs. Moreover, civic education and publicity should be conducted to address the negative perception about women entrepreneur’s capabilities and skills. Further, women owning MSEs need to be empowered on how to do away with the belief systems, and social practices that continue to create gender gap in women’s access to financial services.
Factors influencing rural savings mobilisation in Tanzania: a case of savings and credit co-operative societies in Dodoma and Morogoro Regions
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2017) Liheta, Basili Seimu Athanas
This study examined the factors influencing rural savings mobilisation in Tanzania with reference to savings and credit co-operative societies in Dodoma and Morogoro regions. The study identified determinants of member’s savings, institutional factors for savings, magnitude of savings and savings motives of members. Questionnaires, focus group discussions and observation helped collect primary data. A total of 609 respondents were subjected for interview. A multi-stage sampling technique helped draw the sample of four districts and 11 SACCOS. Data analysis involved the use of descriptive statistics and focused on the profile of the respondents, institutional factors affecting savings mobilisation, magnitude of savings and motivation for savings. The savings and participation models were specified and analysed using regression approach. The study findings revealed that demographic, social and economic factors significantly influence the saving behaviour of co-operative members. The findings also indicated that the magnitude of savings varied in the two regions depending on the income earned from various economic activities, motivation by SACCOS, especially payment of dividend. Other factors for the variation were the types of savings products and available services, namely savings account, deposits and shares. The findings further indicated that personal attributes such as individual level of monthly income, individual’s age, size of household and major sources of income influenced participation of members in SACCOS. The findings disclosed institutional factors such as governance, financial and operational policies as determinants of savings mobilisation by SACCOS. Other factors were distance from financial institutions, time to process membership and minimum balance requirement. With regard to factors influencing the choice of SACCOS for financial savings, the findings highlighted security of savings, membership status and ability to qualify for SACCOS membership. Generally, the findings demonstrate the important role of SACCOS in savings mobilisation. They have provided savers who are not accommodated by the banking system with an alternative mode of saving that fits well with their financial capacity. Access to SACCOS is therefore one of the major factors for mobilisation of savings in rural areas of Tanzania. Thus, it can be concluded that the presence of and membership of SACCOS helps in mobilizing the rural financial saving in the economy’s financial system and efforts should be made to further enhance the participation of the rural households in SACCOS. Generally, decision and policy makers in private and government institutions concerned with rural finance and development need to consider the effects of the above factors when making decisions concerning saving products suitable for rural areas of Tanzania.
The gender dimension of land rights in Tanzania: case study of Msindo village, Same District.
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2000) Koda, Bertha Omari
This study aimed at investigating women's land rights in contemporary land tenure systems pertaining to Same District, north-eastern Tanzania. The main assumptions were that the Wapare customary land tenure system accords unequal rights to women and men due to the household-based gender roles stereotyping as influenced by the marriage institution and that current land tenure reforms are increasing women's land tenure insecurity. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from primary and secondary sources, using PRA methods and structured interviews. A case study of Msindo Village located in Same district, Kilimanjaro region, north-eastern Tanzania was purposively selected and used as source of primary data A total of 69 households (15% of total households) and 139 respondents (5% of total village population) were randomly selected for in-depth interviewing. Life stories of one married woman and two widows were also collected as source of qualitative data. Quantitative data was analyzed into frequencies and cross tabulation (simple statistics) using the SPSS package while qualitative data was manually processed and interpreted in comparison with the study expectations. Results from this study point to the fact that although women in patrilineal Msindo Village enjoy more land tenure security than others through inheriting both clan and family land contrary to the customary land tenure injunctions on women's land rights, their land holding status is precariously threatened by contemporary agrarian reforms as influenced by the current Structural Adjustment Programmes. The study further testifies to the close relationship between marriage and women's land rights and confirms the assertion that the stereo-typing of gender roles is a major factor influencing women's land rights at household level. It further reveals that the flexible and openended arrangements of negotiation provided by the Wapare customary land tenure system and which are beneficial to women are increasingly being threatened by land privatization and commoditization. The study further verifies the assertion that the increase in the number of female and single parent headed households poses a challenge to both patriarchy and contemporary land tenure rules thus encouraging the evolution in land transfers away from the stereo-typical patriarchy-defined transfer procedures. The analytical framework of gender roles' stereo-typing used in this study has broadened the perspective of women's land rights in a pillage setting. More knowledge has also been generated on the conflict between customary patriarchy and capitalist patriarchy as well on the emerging effects of this conflict on women's and men's land rights. The major conclusion reached is that women's access to land ownership and control rights together with existing female - male solidarity on land matters threaten the very existence of the patriarchal system which supports the perpetuation of male dominance. Furthermore, the relatively gender sensitive intra-household redistribution of land and the encouraging new direction towards equal inheritance rights between daughters and sons are suggestive of the eventual creation of women's economic independence. This is despite the strengthening of individual landed property relations whose exploitative nature tend to maximize the functionality of capitalist patriarchy.
Gender roles in household poverty reduction: a case of Pamulu and Julukwe villages in Moyo district in North Western Uganda.
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2003) Esuruku, Robert Senath
The focus of this study was to examine gender roles in household poverty reduction. The study was limited to Pamulu and Julukwe villages in Moyo district in North-western Uganda. The findings of this study were drawn from 50 men and 50 women respondents. Four techniques of data collection were used; these included interview, observation, questionnaire and focus group discussions. Data collected was analysed using STATA programme and the results are presented in descriptive form, percentage distribution and cross tabulations. In Pamulu and Julukwe villages, there were gender variations in definition of poverty. Women often described poverty in terms of lack of land, water, inability to raise income, lacking financial and material assistance from children, household food insecurity and poor children's welfare. For men poverty was related to inability to engage in meaningful employment and lack of productive assets, being born to a lazy father, being a casual worker and being widowed. Other indicators of poverty described by communities from Pamulu and Julukwe villages included inaccessibility to social services and poor leadership. These indicators demonstrate that poverty has many facets, which vary according to gender and location. Therefore interventions to reduce poverty must address these variations, but focusing on the root causes of poverty. When monitoring poverty, indicators should address not only the material possessions and income of local people but also social capital such as the ability to work together to achieve common goals. The major causes of household poverty in Pamulu and Julukwe villages in Moyo district included constraints to agriculture, natural calamities like drought, floods and hail storms; poor governance in terms of poor leadership, corruption and bad policies, insecurity; inadequate and costly services especially health care resulting in some people selling their household items to meet medical care. Isolation of Pamulu and Julukwe villages and the Moyo district by the government in terms of unfair distribution of services and inputs also featured and these were related to remoteness and cost barriers. The major effects of household poverty were listed as inability to meet basic needs like food and drugs resulting in death, anti-social behaviour like theft, poor health, alcoholism, domestic violence, failure to access services tax defaulting, increased school dropouts. The top community priority concerns in order to reduce household poverty were provision of quality education, health services and sanitation, information mobilisation, provision of credit services, agricultural extension services, access to rural feeder roads, access to markets, ensuring peace and security and good governance. Involvement of the poor in planning and managing their own resources would be ideal.
Health insurance contribution to expansion of health services access to poor households in Tanzania: Experiences from implementing community base health insurance schemes in six Districts
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2019) Ndunguru, Moses January
In Tanzania, health insurance has features as a potential welfare tool for expanding access to health services to all people and achieving goals of the Universal Health Coverage since 1993. This study examined health insurance contribution to expiation of health services access to poor households in Tanzania, using experience from community-based health insurance schemes operating in six districts. It specifically assessed trends of enrolment; efforts made to make health services available, affordable and acceptable; poor people’s perception of availability, affordability, and acceptability of services; and factors that facilitated and limited access to services. The study adopted descriptive cross-sectional research design involving a sample of 433 respondents who were selected purposively and randomly. Data were collected through 384 household survey questionnaires, 49 in -depth interviews, 24 focus group discussions, documentary review, and observation; and analysed descriptively and thematically. Findings indicated that the trend of enrolment was low and declining. Although schemes claimed to make health services available through sensitization programmes, raising user fees, strengthening health facility organs, and enrolment of the elderly, majority (54.4%) of the respondents were dissatisfied due to frequent shortage of drugs, limited number of accredited health facilities, absence of referral services, shortage of health workers, and equipment; unattractive benefit packages; mismanagement and unfriendly rules of the schemes; poor accountability; abusive language; exemption policy; expiration of cards, frequent increase in premiums and extra-payments; unclear definition of unit of households; unstable household income; high cost of care; and households’ negative perception of health insurance. To expand access to health services to the poor in Tanzania, there is a need for the government, policy makers, health insurance scheme managers, and health facility managers to provide education about health insurance and its benefits; improve quality of health services in the accredidited health facilities by ending a great problem of frequent unavailability of prescribed drugs, all unnecessary access barriers; and modify enrolment criteria to accommodate more groups in need.
Household coping strategies for food security in hazardous areas of rural Tanzania: the case of Kagera Region.
(University of Dar es Salaam, 2001) Kamugisha, Cosmas Aloys
This thesis has signalled the ways in which indigenous knowledge, that provides the basis for much coping behaviour, and patterns of coping themselves, interact with official attempts at household food insecurity presentation and mitigation. A sensitive administration or a Non-Governmental organization has to be able to build on such foundations. More often than not, official recovery practice pay little heed to what ordinary peasants do. This work investigated the household coping strategies for food security in Kagera Region, situated in the North West of Tanzania, whereby 90% of the population is engaged in agricultural production. Main food crops include bananas, maize, beans, cassava, sweet potatoes, yams, millet and sorghum. Cash crops are mainly coffee and tea. The coping strategies used by households in Kagera Region, entailed mobilization of resources which included using the market, the exercise of rights, calling upon obligations of other household members, kin, patrons, friends as well as theft or even violence. The objective was survival in the face of adverse events including the 1980s HIV/AII~S pandemic, the 1994 Rwanda and Burundi refugee influx, banana weevils and nematodes and the 1978/79 Iddi Amin war of aggression. The coping strategies are based on the totality of the households economic, social, political and environmental resources. Household food security in Kagera means when the household at all times has physical and economic access to sufficient food to meet the household member's dietary needs for a productive and healthy life. Unfortunately, policymakers at local level have paid little attention to household and village-based strategies for coping with food security. Rural households in hazardous areas have a capacity to cope with food insecurity. The methodology used to get the results was identifying two wards for each district of Ngara, Karagwe, Muleba and Bukoba Rural which were highly affected by the hazards. Then villages were selected from those wards and finally households. All the households in the selected villages were listed and stratified using the listing questionnaire. From each stratum or vulnerability measure, five households were selected using systematic simple random sampling starting with not vulnerable, moderately vulnerable, most vulnerable and very vulnerable. The sample survey had a total of one hundred and twenty households. There were listing and household questionnaires. The household questionnaire had five modules. The five modules were household particulars, household facilities, income generating activities, consumption and coping strategies. The population sampled was the peasant households and the method used as interviewing. The sampling procedure utilised under the probability or random based samples, was a representative of a large population of food insecure in Kagera Region. The survey was a one-off, that is, collecting current information on crosssectional basis. This form of data collection highlighted relationships between refugee influx, HIV/AIDS, banana weevils and nematodes, being food insecure and the coping strategies. Many coping strategies in Kagera Region have come under a variety of pressures which have reduced their range and efficacy. The influence of the market has improved some and eroded others. Nonetheless, coping strategies of all kinds have been crucial elements in understanding the vulnerability and designing interventions. The thesis indicates appropriate ways of improving household food security in sustainable ways. Comprehending the coping strategies is the bed-rock on which successful household food security depends and identifying the limits to and potential of the coping strategies is the basis on which household food security can be maintained. Cultivation is practiced by nearly all households in the rural areas of Kagera region. The availability of land and established social networks make cultivation the major coping strategy for food security at the preventive level. However, cultivation as a coping strategy by a household depends on circumstances and strategy, for production of both food and cash crops. Export-led development has greatly influenced cash crops production. Due to unequal exchange, declining terms of trade and increased risks, cash crops occasionally do not produce household food security growth through improved factor utilisation. Household food security has to go beyond micro-economic concentration on small farms. There is a need of studying the socio-economic constraints affecting the households at specific times. There is also a necessity of improving agricultural policies and investment plans to benefit rural households. This has to ensure that the framework of economic policies were favourable and maintenance of constant communication between authorities and technical experts at all levels as well as the peasants who will be involved.

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